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L~&r

A HISTORY

OF

THE BIRDS OF EUROPE,

INCLUDING ALL THE SPECIES INHABITING- THE

WESTERN PAL^ARCTIC REGION

BY

H. E. DRESSER, F.L.S., F.Z.S., etc.

VOLUME VII.

LONDON:

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR,

6 TENTERDEN STEEET, HAKOTEE SQITAEE, W.

1871-1881.

FLAMMAM.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

COLUMB/E. GALLIN/E. GRALL/E. OTID/E.

CEDICNEMID/E. GLAREOLID/E. CHARADRIID/E.

SCOLOPAC1D/E (to Gallinago).

^^^"Zrfiiui^jT"" 7 " -*" gTC! ^r ; iir J -^-^t«8r»~ -*a m r<* =

faaffilffilCKrr'i'ySSB

LETTERPRESS TO VOL. VII.

Genera and Sneciea Date of Issued in Pages in Final

1 publication. Part article. paging.

158. Columba 1880 80 1 1

454. Columba palumbus ...... 1878 65, 66 8 3-10

455. Columba livia 1879 75,76 11 11-21

456. Columba cenas 1876 51, 52 6 23-28

457. Columba bollii 1875 41,42 2 29,30

458. Columba laurivora 1875 41,42 2 31,32

459. Columba trocaz 1875 41,42 3 33-35

159. Tuetur 1880 80 1 37

460. Turtur vulgaris 1876 50 6 39-44

461. Turtur orientalis ....... 1876 55, 56 4 45-48

462. Turtur isabeUinus 1877 63, 64 2 49, 50

463. Turtur risorius 1877 63, 64 4 51-54

464. Turtur senegalensis . . . ... 1876 51, 52 4 55-58

160. Pteeocles 1880 80 1 59

465. Pterocles arenarius 1874 33 5 61-65

466. Pterocles alchata 1874 33 5 67-71

161. Sterhaptes 1880 80 1 73

467. Syrrhaptes paradoxus 1876 53 8 75-82

162. Phasianus 1880 80 1 83

468. Phasianus colchicus 1879 75, 76 6 85, 90

163. Caccabis 1880 80 1 91

469. Caccabis saxatilis . ...... 1875 43,44 4 93-96

470. Caccabis chukar 1875 43, 44 6 97-102

471. Caccabis rufa 1875 35,36 7 103-109

472. Caccabis petrosa 1875 35,36 4 111-114

164. Ammopeedix 1880 80 1 115

473. Ammoperdix bonhami 1880 77-79 4 117-120

IV

„ , c Date of

Genera and Species. publication.

165. Francolinus 1880

474. Francolinus vulgaris 1876

166. Perdix 1880

475. Perdix cinerea •. 1878

167. Coturnix ■. . . . 1880

476. Coturnix communis 1878

168. Lagopus 1880

477. Lagopus mutus 1874

478. Lagopus scoticus 1873

479. Lagopus rupestris 1874

480. Lagopus hemileucurus 1871

481. Lagopus albus 1874

169. Bonasa 1880

482. Bonasa betulina 1871

170. Tetrao 1880

483. Tetrao tetrix 1873

484. Tetrao mlokosiewiczi 1876

485. Tetrao urogallus 1873

171. Tetraogallus 1880

486. Tetraogallus caucasicus 1878

487. Tetraogallus caspius 1878

172. Turnix 1880

488. Turnix sylvatica 1876

173. Rallus 1880

489. Rallus aquaticus 1878

174. Porzana 1880

490. Porzana maruetta 1878

491. Porzana bailloni 1878

492. Porzana parva 1878

175. Crex . . . 1880

493. Crex pratensis 1878

176. Porphtrio 1880

494. Porphyrio veterum 1876

495. Porphyrio smaragnotus 1876

496. Porphyrio alleni 1880

Issued in
Part

80

Pages in
article.

1

Final
paging.

121

51,52

6

123-128

80

1

129

67,68

10

131-140

80

1

141

69,70

12

143-154

80

1

155

32

8

157-164

23,24

10

165-174

28

4

175-178

7

4

179-182

29,30

8

183-190

80

1

191

9

10

193-202

80

1

203

20

13

205-217

51,52

3

219-221

21

11

223-233

80

1

235

65,66

4

237-240

65,66

5

241-245

80

1

247

55,56

5

249-253

80

1

255

67,68

7

257-263

80

1

265

65,66

8

267-274

65, 66

8

275-282

65,66

6

283-288

80

1

289

67,68

6

291-296

80

1

297

50

4

299-302

55, 56

4

303-306

77-79

3

307-309

V

.-, j c Date of Issued in Pages in Final

Genera and Species. , ,. , . „ , ?. ,

1 publication. Part article. paging.

177. Gallinula 1880 80 1 311

497. Gallinula chloropus 1879 73,74 7 313-319

178. Fulica 1880 80 1 321

498. Fulica cristata 1879 73, 74 4 323-326

499. Fulica atra 1879 73,74 8 327-334

179. Grus 1880 80 1 335

500. Grus communis 1873 18 15 337-351

501. Grus virgo 1879 73, 74 6 353-358

502. Grus leucogeranus 1878 69, 70 7 359-365

180. Otis " 1880 80 1 367

503. Otis tarda 1873 20 13 369-381

504. Otis tetrax 1872 13 7 383-389

505. Otis undulata 1876 54 4 391-394

506. Otis macqueeni ....... 1876 54 3 395-397

181. CEdicnemus 1880 80 1 399

507. GZdicnemus scolopax 1876 55, 56 7 401-407

182. Glaeeola 1880 80 1 409

508. Glareola pratincola 1874 29,30 8 411-418

509. Glareola melanoptera 1874 29, 30 3 419-421

183. Cuesoeius 1880 80 1 423

510. Cursorius gallicus 1875 41,42 7 425-431

184. Chaeadeius 1880 80 1 433

511. Charadrius pluvialis 1871 6 7 435-441

512. Charadrius fulvus 1871 9 10 443-452

185. Squataeola 1880 80 1 453

513. Squatarola helvetica 1871 6 9 455-463

Squatarola helvetica. Appendix A . 1876 47,48 8 465-472

186. iEeiALiTis 1880 80 1 473

514. ^gialitis geoffroyi ...... 1878 69, 70 4 475-478

515. JEgialitis asiatica 1878 69, 70 3 479-481

516. ^gialitis cantiana 1876 49 7 483-489

517. iEgialitis curonica 1876 51, 52 6 491-496

518. ^Egialitis hiaticula 1876 47, 48 7 497-503

187. Eudeomias 1880 80 1 505

519. Eudromias morinellus 1875 35, 36 12 507-518

VI

n , „ . Date of

Genera and Species. ,,. ,.

1 publication.

188. Pluvianus 1880

520. Pluvianus segyptius 1878

189. Chettusia 1880

521. Chettusia gregaria 1875

522. Chettusia leucura 1871

190. Hoploptekus 1880

523. Hoplopterus spinosus 1878

191. Vanellus 1880

524. Vanellus vulgaris 1875

192. Steepsilas 1880

525. Strepsilas interpres 1875

193. Hjematopus 1880

526. Hsematopus ostralegus 1877

194. Recuevieostea 1880

527. Eecurvirostra avocetta 1875

195. Himantopds 1880

528. Himantopus candidus 1877

196. Phalaeopus 1880

529. Phalaropus hyperboreus .... 1874

530. Phalaropus fulicarius 1874

197. Scolopax 1880

531. Scolopax rusticola 1877

198. Gallinago . 1880

532. Gallinago major 1876

533. Gallinago coelestis 1880

534. Gallinago gallinula 1877

Issued in
Part

80

Pages in
article.

1

Final
paging.

519

65,66

3

521-523

80

1

525

37

4

527-530

2

6

531-536

80

1

537

65,66

4

539-542

80

1

543

39

8

545-552

80

1

553

35,36

10

555-564

80

1

565

63,64

8

567-574

80

1

575

46

7

577-583

80

1

585

63,64

8

587-594

80

1

595

32

8

597-604

33

7

605-611

80

1

613

61,62

13

615-627

80

1

629

55,56

9

631-639

77-79

11

641-651

57,58

8

653-660

PLATES TO VOL. VII.

No. Plates. . Iss » ed

in rare

456. Columba palumbus 65, 66

457. Columba livia 67, 68

458. Columba oenas 51, 52

459. Columba boUii 41,42

460. Columba laurivora 41, 42

461. Columba trocaz 41, 42

462. Turtur vulgaris 50

463. Turtur orientalis 55, 56

464. Fig. 1, Turtur isabellinus ; fig. 2,

Turtur risorius 65, 66

465. Turtur senegalensis 51, 52

466. Pterocles arenarius 33

467. Pterocles alchata .*.... 33

468. Syrrhaptes paradoxus .... 53

469. Pbasianus colchicus 75, 76

470. Fig. 1, Caccabis saxatilis ; fig. 2,

C. cbukar 43, 44

471. Fig. 1, Caccabis rufa; fig. 2, C.

petrosa 35, 36

472. Ammoperdix bonhami .... 77-79

473. Francolinus vulgaris 51, 52

474. Perdix cinerea d ad. et juv. . . 63, 64

475. Perdix cinerea 2 et pulli . . .63, 64

476. Coturnix communis 63, 64

477. Fig. 1, Lagopus mutus ; fig. 2, L.

rupestris 31

478. Lagopus mutus 32

479. Lagopus scoticus 23, 24

480. Lagopus rupestris (Rock Ptarmi-

gan on Plate) 35, 36

481. Lagopus rupestris $ et $ ad. . . 28

No. Plates. Iss ; led

m Part

482. Lagopus hemileucurus .... 7

483. Lagopus albus sest 32

484. Fig. 1, Lagopus albus hiem. ; fig. 2,

L. mutus hiem 29, 30

485. Lagopus albus (feet only) . . . 29, 30

486. Bonasa betulina 9

487. Tetrao tetrix 20

488. Tetrao mlokosiewiczi .... 41, 42

489. Fig. 1, Tetrao urogallus (hybri-

dus); fig. 2, T. urogallus ? steril. 22

490. Tetrao urogallus 21

491. Tetraogallus caucasicus $ et pulli. 65, 66

492. Tetraogallus caucasicus d ad. et

juv. . . . . . . . . . 65, 66

493. Tetraogallus caspius 65, 66

494. Turnix sylvatica 55, 56

495. Rallus aquaticus ...... 65, 66

496. Porzana maruetta 63, 64

497. Porzana bailloni 67, 68

498. Porzana parva 65,66

499. Crex pratensis 67,68

500. Porpbyrio veterum 55, 56

501. Porphyrio smaragnotus . . . . 55,56

502. Porphyrio alleni 77-79

503. Gallinula chloropus 75, 76

504. Fig. 1, Fulica cristata ; fig. 2,

F. atra 73, 74

505. Grus communis ...... 18

506. Grus virgo 73, 74

507. Grus leucogeranus 71, 72

508. Otis tarda 20

Vlll

No. Plates. lBS I led f

in Part

509. Otis tetrax 13

510. Otis undulata 54

511. Otis macqueeni 54

512. CEdicnemus scolopax .... 55, 56

513. Fig. 1, Glareola pratincola ; fig. 2,

G. melanoptera 29, 30

514. Cursorius gallicus 41, 42

515. Fig. 1, Charadrius pluvialis sest. ;

fig. 2, Squatarola helvetica aest. 6

516. Charadrius fulvus 9

517. Fig. 1, Squatarola helvetica hiem. ;

figs. 2, 3, Charadrius fulvus
hiem 9

518. Figs. 1, 2, Charadrius pluvialis

autumn. ; fig. 3, Squatarola hel-
vetica autumn 6

519. Fig. 1, Squatarola helvetica ; fig. 2,

Charadrius pluvialis : pulli . . 47, 48

520. Fig. 1, iEgialitis asiatica hiem.;

fig. 2, M. geoffroyi hiem. . . 69, 70

521. ^gialitis geoffroyi 69, 70

522. JEgialitis asiatica 69, 70

523. iEgialitis cantiana 49

524. .ZEgialitis curonica 51, 52

525. iEgialitis hiaticula 47, 48

■nt tii i Issued

No. Plates. . t, <.

in Fart

526. Eudromias morinellus .... 35, 36

527. Pluvianus eegyptius 65, 66

528. Chettusia gregaria 37

529. Chettusia leucura 2

530. Hoplopterus spinosus .... 63, 64

531. Vanellus vulgaris (Vanellus cris-

tatus on Plate) 39

532. Strepsilas interpres 35, 36

533. Hsematopus ostralegus .... 61, 62

534. Recurvh'ostra avocetta .... 46

535. Himantopus candidus 2 et pull. . 65, 66

536. Himantopus candidus <s . . . 63, 64

537. Phalaropus hyperboreus ... 32

538. Phalaropus fulicarius .... 33

539. Fig. 1, Phalaropus fulicarius

hiem. ; fig. 2, P. hyperboreus

hiem 35, 36

540. Scolopax rusticola 61, 62

541. Gallinago major 55, 56

542. Gallinago ccelestis, pale var. (Gal-

linago gallinaria on Plate) . . 69, 70

543. Fig. 1, Gallinago ccelestis ; fig. 2,

G. ccelestis, var. sabinii . . . 77-79

544. Gallinago gallinula 57, 58

Subclass SCHIZOGNATH.E.

Order I. COLUMBiE.
Family COLUMBIA.

Genus COLUMBA.

Columba, Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 282 (1766).
Palumbus apud Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 107 (1829).
Palumbcena apud Bonaparte, Cat. Parzud. p. 9 (1856).
Trocaza apud Bonaparte, Compt. Rend, xliii. p. 837 (1856).

The Pigeons must decidedly be ranged near the Gallinaceous birds, though some authors have
placed them in quite distinct divisions and apart. Sundevall (who divides our birds into two
large groups — the one, which he terms Gymnopasdes, containing all those which are, when
hatched, naked and helpless, and the other, called by him Dasypaedes, embracing those which
are covered with down on emerging from the egg and are more or less able to take care of
themselves) places the Pigeons amongst the Gymnopsedes, separating them from the Gallinse
by the Accipitres. In Professor Huxley's classification, which I have followed as nearly as
possible, the Pigeons, together with their close allies the Sand-Grouse, form the first order of
the Schizognathse, being followed by the Galling — a position which is clearly the most natural
one for them.

The Pigeons inhabit the Pakearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental. Australian, Nearctic, and Neotropical
Regions, six species being found in the Western Pakearctic Eegion. They inhabit both open and
wooded localities, and the mountains as well as the plains, according as they find an abundance
of food. They have a strong, swift, and protracted flight ; walk with ease, taking short steps,
sometimes running quite fast. Their note is a deep coo ; and both sexes utter this note. They
nestle on trees or bushes, amongst the rocks, and even on the ground, and deposit two pure-
white elliptical eggs. The young birds, when first hatched, are nearly naked, being covered but
sparingly with thin, soft down, are quite unable to do any thing for themselves, and are fed with
vegetable substances softened in the crop of the old birds, and which the parent birds introduce
into the mouths of their young with their bills.

The food of the Pigeons consists entirely of vegetable substances of various kinds ; and they
drink very regularly, usually early in the morning and late in the evening.

Columba livia, the type of the genus, has the bill rather short, straight, slender, the upper
mandible having at the base two soft tumid bare substances over the nostrils ; culmen depressed
towards the tip, which is obtuse, but thin-edged; nostrils linear, placed in the lower anterior
portion of the nasal membrane; wings long, full, the second quill longest; tail moderate,
slightly rounded ; legs short, strong ; tarsus anteriorly scutellate, posteriorly scui'fy ; toes mode-
rate, scutellate ; claws short, compressed, arched, rather acute ; oesophagus dilated and expanded
into a large two-lobed crop, below which it narrows.

*5*

J.Cr.Ke-uIemans ]ith.

Haxihart imp.

RING-DOVE.

COLUMBA PALUMBUS

COLUMBA PALUMBUS.

(RING-DOVE.)

Columba palumbus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 89 (1760).
Columba palumbus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 282 (1766).
Columba palumbes, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso- As. i. p. 563 (1811).
Columba torguata, Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 26 (1816).
Palumbus, Kaup [Columba palumbus, L.), Natiirl. Syst. p. 107 (1829).
Columba pinetorum, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 488 (1831).
Palumbus torguatus (Leach), Bp. Cat. Parzud. p. 9 (1856).
Columba trocaz, Morel. Hist. Nat. Acor. p. 84 (1860, nee Heine).
Palumbus excelsus, Bp. Compt. Rend, xliii. p. 836 (1856).

Colombe ramier, French ; Pombo trocaz, Portuguese ; Paloma torcaz, Spanish ; Colombaccio,
Italian ; Tudun, Maltese ; Kamoor, Moorish ; Bingeltaube, Holztaube, German ; Bingduif,
Dutch ; Bingeldue, Danish ; Digva, Fseroese ; Bingdue, Norwegian ; Bingdufva, Swedish ;
Kauluskyyliky, Finnish ; Lesnoi-Golub, Russian.

Figurce notabiles.

D'Auhenton, PI. Enl. 316 ; Werner, Atlas, Pigeons, pi. 1 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 28 ;
Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 29. fig. 3 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 149 ; Sundevall, Svensk.
Fogl. pi. 31. fig. 2 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 243 ; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 1 ; Schlegel, Vog.
Nederl. pi. 183; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. pi. 18.

Ad. capite et collo superiore saturate caeruleo-cinereis, capitis lateribus purpureo et violaceo nitentibus, colic-
macula utrinque alba notato ; corpore supra fusco-cseruleo : remigibus primariis nigricantibus, extiis
albo marginatis: tectricibus alarum caeruleo-cinereis, sed tectricibus primariorum majoribus et mino-
ribus albis, alula, spuria nigra, secundariis dorso concoloribus : cauda versus basin cseruleo-cinerea,
versus apicem nigra : collo antico et pectore vinaceis, abdomine pallidiore : supracaudalibus, subcau-
dalibus, subalaribus et uropygio cinereo-caeruleis : rostro ad basin rubro, versus apicem flavo : iride
flava : pedibus incarnatis.

Juv. adulto similis sed coloribus sordidioribus, macula nulla in lateribus colli.

Adult Male (Kent, March). Head and upper neck dark dove-blue, sides of the neck richly glossed with
violet and purple, each side marked with a large white patch, which nearly meet behind the neck;
back dark slaty -brownish ash; wing-coverts dull dark bluish, but a long patch on the outer part of
the wing is pure white ; primary quills black, externally edged with white ; secondaries coloured like
the back, but rather darker ; wing-coverts, along the edge of the wing, and spurious wing slaty black ;
lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts rich dove-blue ; base of the tail rather darker, and the
terminal half of the tail black; lower throat, breast, and upper abdomen rich vinous, gradually

becoming paler on the abdomen, and on the lower abdomen merging into pale dove-blue ; lower
flanks, under wing-coverts, and under tail-coverts dove-blue ; bill bright red at the base, and becoming
yellow towards the tip; iris straw-yellow; legs coral-red. Total length about 16"5-17 inches, culmen
1"05, wing 9 - 4, tail 6'5, tarsus 1*2.

Adult Female. Closely resembles the male, but is a trifle smaller in size, and the patch on the sides of the
neck is smaller, the vinous coloration of the breast being a trifle paler.

Young. Differs from the adult in being duller and paler in coloration, in lacking the white patches on the
sides of the neck, and in having the bill dull red at the base, and greyish towards the tip.

The present species is generally distributed throughout Europe, except in the more boreal
districts, but does not range far into Asia, being there replaced by a closely allied species,
Columba casiotis. Southward it is found as far as North Africa, but does not range further
south in that continent, and is not recorded from the east side of North Africa.

With us in Great Britain it is common and generally distributed, having increased largely
in numbers, it would seem, during the last few years. It is found with us at all seasons of the
year, and in some parts of the country is so numerous in the winter and spring as to do great
damage to the agriculturist. Mr. Cecil Smith writes to me, " In Somersetshire it is a resident
and mischievously numerous, being greatly on the increase. The capacity of the Wood-Pigeon
for food seems unlimited, as I have taken from the crop of a single individual as many as
seventy-seven beech-masts and one large acorn: this immense quantity of food was in the crop
only ; the gizzard, in this case, I did not examine. Luckily for the Guernsey farmers the Wood-
Pigeon is by no means a very common bird in the island, though its numbers are occasionally
increased by migratory flocks, especially in the autumn." The same increase in numbers is
observable in many other parts of England, and especially on the east coast. Mr. Cordeaux
writes of it (B. of Humb. Distr. p. 76) : — " Is much more numerous than formerly, having greatly
increased during the last ten years. Collects in immense flocks in the autumn, and in sharp
weather resorts to the cabbage- and turnip-fields to feed on the leaves of these plants. In severe
winters with much frost and snow, the ranks of our local birds probably receive considerable
accessions, either from the north or the continent, as I have observed they are invariably, at least
in this neighbourhood, much more numerous in a severe than in an open winter.

" Wood-Pigeons are remarkably partial to salt water, and will daily during the summer
quarter resort to those drains in the marsh to which the tide has access, to drink the salt water."

In Scotland the present species breeds throughout the country, its numbers being largely
augmented during the winter by migratory flocks, which probably, as is generally supposed by
the farmers on the east coast, come from Scandinavia. When in Haddingtonshire quite lately
I saw large numbers of Ring-Doves, and was told that these migratory flocks are sometimes so
numerous as to cause most serious injury to the farmers. Mr. Robert Gray, writing on this
subject, says (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 216), " That a large yearly accession to the winter flocks takes
place through migration is, I think, evident from the fact that the eastern counties only are
affected by the increase, and that, looking to the destruction of so many hundreds in one year,
no such increase can reasonably be traced to the results of a single breeding-season. Many years

ago, indeed, I am informed by Mr. Alexander Henderson, an observant bird-student resident in
East Lothian, he had repeatedly seen considerable flocks of Wood-Pigeons alighting on the
coast near his house, evidently in a state of exhaustion. These birds, he remarked, were smaller
and darker in plumage than those hatched in the neighbouring woods ; and he was convinced at
the time of their appearance that they were migrants from other countries. Very soon after this
information was communicated to me, I witnessed a still more extraordinary instance of foreign
invasion, on the sea-shore about three miles east of Dunbar. I had gone out about daybreak,
and was astonished to see a prodigious cloud of Pigeons fully a mile seawards, steering for the
nearest land. The entire body of birds alighted on the sandy beach at Catcrag Bay, which they
completely covered between the rocks near the limestone quarry and the opposite point in the
direction of the town. I am satisfied there must have been in the flock twenty or thirty thousand
Pigeons at the lowest computation ; and, from the fact of their alighting immediately on reaching
land without any preliminary survey of the ground, I concluded they had come in from a long
journey. Their tameness on my approach confirmed this conjecture, as I was allowed to put
them up within twelve or fifteen yards. The cloud slowly ascended ; and a line was formed, six
or eight birds deep, which gradually drew off the main body, forming a singular spectacle when
viewed against the morning sky, and almost realizing the descriptions of Wilson and Audubon
when writing of the Passenger Pigeon of North America and its ' five-mile ' processions in the
air." In the same work (p. 217) Mr. Gray writes as follows : — " Throughout the western
counties of Scotland the Wood-Pigeon, though very numerous and apparently on the increase,
is by no means so abundant as in the eastern districts. It is plentiful in Islay, where it was
introduced by the late Mr. Campbell, proprietor of the island. It is found in Mull, Sky
Inverness, Ross, and Sutherlandshire ; but westward of the inner islands it ranks only as a
straggler. A few are occasionally seen in spring and autumn in Benbecula and South Uist, but
they do not remain.

" During the autumn and winter months the Bing-Dove, as this beautiful bird is also called,
feeds chiefly upon the seeds of wild mustard, chickweed, roots of ranunculus or crowfoot, ivy-
berries, oak-' spangle,' berries of the hawthorn and holly, and various other fruits and seeds. I
remember many years ago shooting great numbers in a garden at Dunbar, where their plundering
visits to the gooseberry-bushes were a source of constant annoyance. Each Pigeon must have
consumed a large quantity daily, as I found the crops of those I killed quite distended with
gooseberries. Beech-nuts are also a favourite food, judging from the immense quantities
devoured. From newspaper paragraphs now before me, I learn that in the crop of one bird
shot in East Lothian 272 beech-nuts were found; and that in another, shot by Mr. Joseph
Sadler, at Alyth, in Forfarshire, there were found 1020 grains of corn ! Mr. James S. Dixon,
of Glasgow, who has for some years taken notes on the food of this species, informs me that he
has many times been interested in watching a flock of Wood-Pigeons traversing a grass-field, and
eagerly picking off the seeds of the common buttercup, which they appeared to swallow with
avidity." In the north of Scotland the Ring-Dove becomes scarcer, but it is by no means
uncommon in Sutherland. Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown says that it is " plentiful like other sylvan
species at Rosehall, between that and Bonar Bridge, and in the east generally. In 1834
Mr. Selby observed it as far north as Tongue, where it breeds in the plantations and birch-

woods about the base of Ben Laoghal ; but he adds, " a few pairs only were seen during our
excursion. Now it is more plentiful at Tongue ; but in the west only occasional pairs are seen
at rare intervals, spying out, no doubt, the nakedness of the land. In the spring of 1869 one
pair frequented a small patch of birch-wood close to Loch Assyut ; and I observed them feeding
in the fields around for a few days ; but they soon took their departure, probably to return to
the better-wooded slopes of the Kyle, at Rosehall." In Shetland, Dr. Saxby says, " though
formerly seen at long and irregular intervals, it now appears every spring and autumn, though
in small numbers, more than two seldom being observed at one time in the same locality.
Those which visit the islands are mostly adult birds ; they are apparently fatigued and desirous
of resting immediately after their arrival — but are nevertheless, in general, shy and watchful as
elsewhere, only approaching the gardens at dusk for the purpose of roosting, and keeping to the
most open fields during the day. The only Wood-Pigeon I have seen arrived about the end
of October 1864, and remained for many days. The bird was remarkably tame, and seemed
greatly to wish to fraternize with the House-Pigeons, which, however, as soon as it appeared
among them, always flew off in great alarm, dodging it as if it were a Hawk — a very singular
fact ; for they never take the slightest notice of the presence of the Rock-Dove amongst them."

In Ireland, as in England, it is very generally distributed ; but it has not been met with in
Iceland, and is of rare occurrence in the Fseroes. Captain Feilden states that Herr Kreuser, of
Eide, informed him that he saw several about Eide in the winter of 1871. Mr. H. C. Miiller
received one from Kalbak on the 1st June 1865; and in the middle of November 1868 many
were seen, and several shot, at various places in the islands.

In Scandinavia the Ring-Dove is widely distributed up to about 65° N. lat. Mr. Robert
Collett informs me that " it breeds in Norway commonly up to the frontiers of Nordland, but is
less numerous about the coast than in the wooded portions of the interior. It is generally found
in dense conifer-woods intermixed with a few deciduous trees, usually far from human habita-
tions, being scarcely ever seen near houses or farm-buildings, as is so often the case in Continental
Europe. It arrives in the commencement or towards the middle of April, and leaves about the
middle of October. It breeds in May, frequently making use of a deserted crow's nest or that of
a squirrel, but rarely building a new one for itself, in which case it constructs it of the finer
twigs of the birch." In Sweden, Professor Sundevall writes, it is common, and breeds through-
out the country, arriving early in April, occasionally late in March, and leaving in September or

October. It appears to range northwards up to about 64° or 65° N. lat. Meves met with it at

° °

Ahre, in Jemtland, and on the Angermanelf on the 20th July. Von Wright says (Finl. Fogl.

p. 305) that it is common enough in Central and Southern Finland, but he is unaware how far

north it ranges. He met with it in Idensalmi ; and, according to Dr. Malmgren, it occurs and

breeds in Kajana. In Russia it is found as far north as the White Sea; for Meves writes that

he found it tolerably common in Onega Bay and near Archangel. Mr. Sabanaeff informs me

that it is common in Central Russia, and is most numerous in the Smolensk Government. He

found it in all wooded districts throughout the Perm Government, but especially numerous in

the south. According to Mr. Taczanowski, it is common in summer in Poland, where it arrives

early in April and remains until the end of October. Throughout North Germany it is generally

distributed, and breeds in wooded localities not only far from houses but also close to habitations;

for Mr. Schalow states (J. f. O. 1876, p. 113) that it breeds regularly in the Thiergarten of
Berlin, close to the Charlottenburger Chaussee, undisturbed by the constant traffic which passes
there. According to Mr. Collin, it is the commonest of all the Pigeons which breed in Denmark,
and is generally distributed in suitable localities. It usually arrives in March ; and during mild
seasons large numbers remain over winter. In Heligoland, Mr. Cordeaux writes (Ibis, 1875,
p. 184), it " is common during both periods of migration, in flights more numerous in the autumn
than in the spring, from five to ten or twenty in a flock. Time of migration from the end of
March to the end of May, and from the latter part of September to the end of October." In
Holland it is very common, being chiefly found during summer, arriving in April and leaving in
September or October; but it not unfrequently remains there over winter. In Belgium it is
common and resident; and in France it is found everywhere, in large flocks, on the double
passage, but is nowhere so common, as a resident, as in the public gardens of Paris, where it is
found eight months in the year in a state of semidomestication. M. Adrien Lacroix says that
it occurs on passage in the French Pyrenees, nesting accidentally only in the Hautes Pyrenees
and Pyrenees orientales ; and in Portugal, according to Professor Barboza du Bocage, it is
common. In Spain it is common in the winter ; and some few breed there. Colonel Irby says
that a few pairs breed in the cork-wood near Gibraltar and in other wooded districts in Southern
Spain, but it is most abundant during the winter months. Von Homeyer observed it in the
Balearic Isles, and says (J. f. O. 1862, p. 417) that a few pairs occur in the wooded districts of
Majorca. In Savoy it is abundant on passage, more particularly in the autumn, and occurs also
in summer, but very few remain over the winter ; and in Italy it is chiefly to be met with on
passage, though some few nest there, as also in Sicily and Sardinia. Mr. C. Bygrave Wharton
found it not uncommon in Corsica during the winter, but noticed none in the spring; and
Mr. C. A. Wright says (Ibis, 1864, p. 137) concerning it in Malta: — "Passes in April and May,
and again in September, October, and November. Never seen in great numbers. Does not breed
here, doubtless owing to the want of woodlands." In Southern Germany the Ring-Dove is a
tolerably common and generally-distributed summer resident. Mr. Seidensacher informed me
that it breeds throughout Styria in suitable localities ; and Dr. Fritsch says that it is commoner
in Bohemia than the Stock-Dove, arriving late in March, collecting in flocks in the autumn, and
leaving the country in October. In the Carpathians, Count Casimir Wodzicki says, it is common
as far up as the forest extends, and breeds twice in the season, some few pairs even rearing three
broods in the year. Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown state (Ibis, 1875, p. 416) that it is
common in Transylvania at some seasons, but they did not observe it when there in the summer ;
and in Turkey, according to Messrs. Elwes and Buckley (Ibis, 1870, p. 200), it is tolerably
numerous in most parts of the country, but is never seen in large flocks. The bird found there
is, they add, rather larger and darker than our British bird.

Dr. Kruper says that it winters in large numbers in Greece and Asia Minor, but only a
few pairs remain to breed in the most lonely forests in the mountains, and nests have been taken
on Mount Parnassus and the Veluchi. Very large flocks are seen at the foot of the Olympus in
winter. Lord Lilford, who met with it in the Ionian Islands, writes (Ibis, 1860, p. 236) as
follows : — " I noticed very large flocks of Wood-Pigeons near Phanari, in the plains through
which the Acheron runs. This was in March 1857. I have occasionally seen a few in different

2p

8

parts of Epirus during the winter months ; but it is not abundant in that province. I never saw
it in Corfu."

In Southern Kussia it appears to be very common, especially on the east side of the Black
Sea ; and Professor von Nordmann states that in October there is one continuous stream of
migration between Anapa and Trebizond, lasting for ten or fifteen days, and immense numbers
are netted by the inhabitants. It is said to be common in Asia Minor in winter ; but com-
paratively few breed there. Mr. Danford informs me that he found it common, in large flocks,
at Gozna during December, and saw it at Anascha in March and April. Dr. Kriiper says that
he is unaware if any breed there. Referring to the occurrence of the present species in Palestine,
Dr. Tristram writes (Ibis, 1868, p. 209) as follows: — "Of the Columbidse, Columba palumbus is
spread in countless myriads over the wooded parts of the country in winter. Never, even in the
lowlands of Scotland, have I seen such flights as cover the forests of Gilead at that season. The
flights of Passenger Pigeons in America alone can compare with them. The fellahin villagers of
Gilead adopt a cruel yet simple device by which large numbers of Ping-Doves are taken in the
season of migration. A bird is snared, its eyelids sewn up with thread, and then it is tied to a
perch, and placed on a tree, where the spectacle of the captive vainly flapping its wings attracts
a continuous crowd of its fellows, many of whom fall victims to the weapons of the fowlers, who
are in ambush close by. It would be inexplicable how such multitudes of Pigeons can find a
living in a comparatively uncultivated country, did we not know that all the Columbidse feed
greedily on the foliage of any species of leguminous plants, and that the clovers and Astragali
are the characteristic flora of this country, coming into leaf in winter and withering in April and
May, by which time all the Ring-Doves have left. Indeed I doubt whether any remain so late
as May, though possibly a few linger in Carmel and the higher grounds near the coast."

There appears to be no undoubted instance of its occurrence in North-east Africa, though
Von Heuglin says that he thinks he recollects seeing it at Alexandria ; but it is not uncommon
in North-west Africa. Loche says that it is resident in Algeria, in moderate numbers, in the
forest of Boghar and other wooded districts, and is abundant on migration. Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake
observed it in Morocco in March ; and, according to Favier (fide Colonel Irby, Orn. Str. Gibr.
p. 132), it is found near Tangier throughout the year; some are migratory, crossing to Europe
in March and April. Colonel Irby himself says (I. c.) : — " In some localities in Morocco the
Wood-Pigeon positively swarms. In April, up a valley near the Foudak, to the south-west of
that place, on the road between Tangier and Tetuan, it would have been easy to shoot a hundred
in a day, they were in such numbers and so excessively tame. Two or three which we shot to
eat, had their crops full of the tuberous root of some weed which had been ploughed up and was
lying in quantities about the fallow fields. During the same month, about three years previously,
I noticed considerable numbers about Larache ; but there they were much more wild, though
not so shy as in England or Andalucia." It has also been met with in the Azores ; but
Mr. Godman, who says (Nat. Hist. Az. p. 31) that he received two examples from the Azores,
adds that it is only found in the eastern and central groups, and is most common in St. George's
and Pico.

To the eastward the Ring-Dove does not extend far into Asia, indeed not much to the east
of the Ural, being replaced by Columba casiotis, which is easily distinguishable by its buff neck-

9

patch. Specimens from Bagdad in the British Museum are referable to the present species ; but
near Shiraz, in Persia, Mr. Blanford only met with Columba casiotis.

In habits the Ring-Dove does not differ much from the Stock-Dove; but it is easily recog-
nizable from that species by its larger size, longer tail, and more especially by the white markings
on its wings. It is exceedingly shy, and well able to take care of itself; and when disturbed
whilst perched on a branch it almost invariably flies out at the other side, thus placing the tree
between itself and the intruder. It walks on the ground with ease, taking short dainty steps,
and is there quite as cautious and wary as when perched in a tree. During the breeding-season
it seems to be less gregarious than its allies, and breeds in scattered pairs ; but at other seasons
of the year it frequently collects in larger and smaller flocks, and seeks its food in the oak-forests,
beech-woods, and on cultivated ground, frequently creating great devastation in the latter.

The note of the Ring-Dove is a deep coo, which is uttered by both sexes, but less frequently
by the female than by the male, aud is most often heard in the pairing-season, when the male
bird is paying his addresses to his mate. It seldom coos whilst seated on the ground, and still
more seldom when on the wing, but usually when perched on some tree-top. The male fre-
quently rises from his perch high up into the air and circles down again, with extended wings
and tail, to where his mate is waiting for his caresses. The Ring-Dove lives in strict monogamy ;
and great affection appears to exist between a pair when mated. Two broods are usually raised
in the season, and perhaps in some instances three. The first eggs are deposited about the
middle of April, and the second lot in June. The usual place selected for the purpose of
nidification is on the edge of a wood ; but the nest is often found in the middle of a dense forest,
and not unfrequently in gardens surrounded by human habitations. Either an old nest of a Jay,
a Crow, or a Squirrel is made use of, or else the bird constructs one for itself; in the latter case
it is, as is usual with all the Pigeons, a very poor structure, consisting merely of a platform of
twigs so loose that the eggs may be seen from below. Both birds assist in bringing together the
materials ; but the female appears to be the sole architect.

Two eggs are almost invariably deposited, the first soon after the nest is finished, and the
second three days later; and incubation lasts about eighteen days. The eggs are pure white in
colour, thin-shelled, elongated oval, and, compared with the size of the bird, are small, being but
little larger than those of the Stock-Dove. When the young are hatched they are blind and
very helpless ; when about nine days old they get the use of their eyes, but are carefully fed by
their parents, and remain in the nest until well able to fly.

The food of the present species consists of seeds of various kinds, buds, &c. It is very fond
of the seeds of various conifers, of beech-nuts, grain of various kinds, rape-seed, linseed, turnip-
seed, acorns, &c. ; and tender fresh leaves of plants are often found in quantities in its crop. It
also feeds on blueberries, gooseberries, and other fruits. Like the other Pigeons it goes regularly
to drink, usually in the morning and in the evening; and there are drinking-places to which it
regularly resorts.

In confinement the Ring-Dove does not seem to thrive well, though when taken from the
nest and brought up it becomes tolerably tame. When captured old it is difficult to keep alive,
and has to be crammed for some time, until by degrees it can be got to feed itself.

The specimen figured is an adult male from Kent, and is the bird above described.

2p 2

10

8
In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a, 6 , b, 2- Kent, April. c,juv. Leadenhall Market, d, <J . Pisa, Italy, March 1864 (H. Giglioli).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, b, d , c, 2 ■ Granada, April and May. d, d . Valencia, Spain, November 12th.

E Mus. E. Hargitt.
«, 6 , b, $. Inverness, June 2nd, 1869 (E. Hargitt).

457

. ■ .

HA-nLar-t

imp

ROCK DOVE.

COLUMBA LI VIA.

11

COLUMBA LIVIA.

(ROCK-DOVE.)

Columha lima, Briss. Orn. i. p. 82 (1760).

Columba saxatilis, Briss. torn. cit. p. 84 (1760).

Columha cenas, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 279 (1766, partim). '

Wolumba livia, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 769 (1788, ex Briss.).

Columba saxatilis, Gmel. ut supra (1788, ex Briss.).

Columba livia, Bonnat. Tabl. Encycl. et Method, i. p. 227 (1790).

Columba amaliw, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 491 (1831).

Columba intermedia, Strickl. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1844, p. 39.

Columba rupestris, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 256 (1855, nee Bp.).

Columba elegans, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Columba glauconotos, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Columba unicolor, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Columba dubia, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Columba gymnocyclus, G. K. Gray, List of B. in Brit. Mus. part iv. p. 28 (1856).

Columba plumipes, G. R. Gray, torn. cit. p. 29 (1856).

Columba turricola, Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 47 (1857).

Columba schimperi, Bp. ut supra (1857).

1 Columba fusca, Severtzoff, Turk. Jevotn. p. 68 (1873).

Columba necjlecta, Hume, Lah. to Yark. p. 272 (1873).

Caluman-fiadhaich, Gaelic; Colombe biset, French; Pomba, Portuguese; Zurita, Paloma
brava, Spanish ; Piccione selvatico, Italian ; Hamiental gebel, Maltese ; Ham,am el Berri,
Moorish ; Feldtaube, Felsentaube, German ; Blaadigva, Fseroese ; Klippe-due, Norwegian ;
Klipp-dufva, Swedish.

Figurce notabiles.

DAubenton, PI. Enl. 510; Werner, Atlas, Pigeons, pi. 4; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. 2nd Suppl.
taf. 4; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 150; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 31. fig. 1 ; Gould,
B. of Eur. pi. 245 ; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 3 ; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. pi. 80.

Ad. capite et collo saturate schistaceo-caeruleo, hoc imo viridi nitente et in parte antica lateraliterque teneo
purpureo lavato : dorso et tectricibus alarum minoribus cseruleo-canis, dorso imo cum uropygio albis :
supracaudalibus et cauda caeruleo-schistaceis, fasciis alarum duabus et caudae apice nigris : remigibus
sordide schistaceis, versus apicem fusco tinctis , corpore subtiis saturate cseruleo-canis : subalaribus et
axillaribus albis : rostro rufescenti-fusco, membrana, narium tumida albo-cinerea : iride aurantiaca :
pedibus rubris.

Jav. ubique sordidiorj fasciis alarum minus distinctis, et collo vix viridi nitente.

12

Adult Male (Faeroes) . Head and neck dark slate-blue, the neck glossed all round with green, below which,
on the fore part and sides of the neck, it is richly shot with coppery purple ; back and lesser wing-
coverts pale dove-blue ; lower back and rump white ; upper tail-coverts and basal portion of the tail
slate-blue, the terminal portion of the tail black ; quills dull pale slate-blue tinged with brown towards
the tips ; rest of the wings pale dove-blue crossed by two black bands ; underparts dark dove-blue with
a slaty tinge ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white, the edge of the wing dove-blue ; bill reddish
brown; iris orange; legs reddish. Total length about 11 inches, culmen 0"8, wing 8 - 5, tail 4 - 6,
tarsus T2.

Adult Female (Faeroes). Resembles* the male, but is rather smaller, and duller in general coloration.

Young. Very much duller in general coloration, and having the black bands on the wing less clearly defined
than in the adult, and there is but little of the green gloss on the neck.

The present species, which, it is now almost universally admitted, is the stock from which all our
tame varieties of the Pigeon have sprung, is tolerably widely distributed, being found, though
locally, from Northern Scandinavia into Northern Africa, and to the eastward its range extends
into China and Japan.

In Great Britain the Bock-Dove is tolerably common in suitable localities where there are
high cliffs and heavy rocks, in the crannies and caves of which it can find shelter. Mr. A. G.
More, speaking of its breeding-range in Great Britain, says (Ibis, 1865, p. 141): — "Commencing
from the south of England, the Rock-Dove used to breed formerly at Purbeck (Bev. H. Austin) ;
but there is no direct evidence of its having ever bred in the Isle of Wight.

" Mr. E. H. Bodd includes the Bock-Dove in his list as breeding occasionally in Cornwall.
The Eev. M. A. Mathews has observed it building in the cliffs about Lynton. Mr. W. D. Crotch
reports it as breeding in Somersetshire. The bird is said to be common in Gloucester and
Monmouth.

" Sir W. Jardine gives Caldey Island as a locality ; and Mr. Tracy marks the bird as breeding
in Pembrokeshire. The Rev. H. Harpur Crewe has observed it breeding in Denbighshire ; and
there are probably several other localities in South and North Wales.

" Mr. J. F. Brockholes tells me that there is a colony at Beeston Castle, Cheshire, and that
he once noticed a pair frequenting the high banks of the Mersey during the breeding-season.
Mr. C. S. Gregson informs me that the Eock-Dove breeds at Whitbarrow Scar ; and Mr. J. B.
Hodgkinson has found its nest occasionally in Cumberland : it breeds also in the Isle of Man, as
I learn from my obliging correspondent Mr. J. F. Crellin.

" On the east coast of England the Eock-Dove breeds only at Flamborough ; it also breeds
in a few rocky valleys or inland cliffs in Derby, York, Leicester, Stafford, Shropshire, and
Somerset."

To this I may add that I have certainly seen the Eock-Dove in the Isle of Wight late in
March ; and, referring to its supposed occurrence in Somerset, Mr. Cecil Smith writes to me
that he is "doubtful as to its being really an inhabitant of this county; I included it in my
' Birds of Somerset ' on the authority of the Eev. M. A. Mathew, who told me that a colony had
taken up their abode near Weston-super-Mare ; and since then, in February 1871, I saw some
Eock-Doves at a place called Uphill, not very far from Weston-super-Mare. I pointed these out

13

to a boatman who was with me, thinking that they were probably tame Pigeons ; but he told me
there were no Pigeons kept at Uphill, and that they lived in the rocks. Shortly after this I had
a letter from a correspondent at Cheddar suggesting that some Pigeons he saw about the Cheddar
cliffs were wild Rock-Doves ; but I think it extremely probable that these, at all events, were
escapes. I have never met with the Rock-Dove in Guernsey or the Channel Islands. Professor
Ansted, however, mentions it in his list as being found in Guernsey and Sark ; but I am very
doubtful about this."

As above stated, the Rock-Dove breeds in some numbers in the cliffs at Flamborough Head ;
and Mr. Hancock writes (B. of North. & Durh. p. 85): — "This is a resident, and is undoubtedly
the true Stock-Dove from which the domestic Pigeon is derived. A few birds breed occasionally
in the cliffs at Marsden, and in other localities on the sea-coast, both in Northumberland and
Durham, where the cliffs are high. But so like is this species to the common domestic Pigeon,
that it is difficult to say positively whether they are escaped birds or are really the wild form.
I have, however, in my collection a young individual, that was killed in December 1855, at
Newbiggin-by-the-Sea, which is certainly a true wild Rock-Dove. This species is in great
abundance, breeding in the cliffs at Gordenstown, near Covesea, in the neighbourhood of Elgin.
Here I had a capital opportunity of observing a large colony of these birds, and I shot several
specimens. A pair of Peregrines had taken up their abode and reared their young in a hollow
in the cliff close to the nesting-places of the Pigeons, and were feeding their nestlings on the
tender flesh of their neighbours, preferring it evidently to that of the Herring-Gulls that were
likewise breeding in the same locality, and flying about close to them unheeded and unheeding."
In Scotland this Pigeon is more numerous than in England, and, Mr. Robert Gray says, is
abundant along the whole coast-line of the west of Scotland, on the Outer Hebrides, and in
Orkney and Shetland. It is less numerous on the east than on the west coast, but breeds
regularly in many suitable localities. In Ireland it is tolerably common on the rocky portions
of the coasts, and on the small adjacent islands.

In continental Europe it is very locally distributed ; for it is only an inhabitant of the
coast where it can find shelter amongst high rocks. In the Faeroes it is resident and very
numerous, breeding there twice in the season ; but in Scandinavia it is only found in one
locality, in the Stavanger fjord (59° N. lat.), where it inhabits some small islands. Early in this
century it was very numerous there ; but at the present time, Mr. Collett informs me, it has
become quite scarce, and will soon be extinct. Renneso is the island where it has always been
most numerous, and in 1830 large flocks were to be seen there, whence it straggled to Omo,
Klostero, Mostero, and the mainland. It is not only destroyed by man on account of the damage
it is said to do to the crops, but the Eagle Owl and Goshawk kill great numbers, the latter
species especially being a dire enemy to this bird. Nilsson says that Prosten Ekstrom saw one
on the island of Tjorn, in Bohusliin, in a flock of Columba oenas; but there appears to be some
doubt as to the authenticity of this statement. It does not occur in Finland, North Germany,
or Denmark in a wild state; but here and there in North Germany birds which have been
domesticated, but had become wild, are to be found ; and the same may be said as regards its
occurrence in Belgium, Holland, and Northern France, except that the true Columba livia is

said to occur on passage in the last-named country. M. Adrien Lacroix says that some few are
sedentary in the French Pyrenees ; but the larger proportion of those which are found there are
birds which pass and repass on their way to and from their northern breeding-stations.

In Portugal, according to Dr. Rey (J. f. O. 1872, p. 153), it breeds abundantly in the
numerous cliffs and in the caves and crannies in the mountains on the coasts of the southern
provinces, but it is rare near inhabited places, and, he remarks, there are no domestic Pigeons
kept in that country. In Southern Spain, Mr. Saunders writes (Ibis, 1871, p. 223), "Abundant
on the rocky east coast and in all mountain-ranges, this species swarms to an almost incredible
extent in the mountains at the back of the Sierra Nevada. When winding through the dreary-
ravines between Baza and Lorca, vast flocks kept pouring down to their feeding-grounds from
sunrise to about 8 a.m. ; and we estimated the number which passed quite near to us as about
seven thousand, without noticing more distant bands. Each flock was invariably led by a white
or piebald bird." It is common near Gibraltar ; and Mr. Savile Reid informs me, " Wild birds
come down from the cliffs on the north and east sides of the Rock of Gibraltar to pair with the
domesticated ones in the dove-cotes below, especially at the kennels of the Calpe Hunt, where I
have seen them. The strangers were rather shy."

According to Von Homeyer it is very abundant on the rocky coasts of the Balearic Isles,
but never appears to occur in the interior ; and in Italy it is resident and very abundant in the
Campagna, along the coast of Tuscany, and in the Apennines. In other parts of the country it
is said to be a migrant ; but Salvadori does not think that this is the case. Iu Sicily and Sardinia
it is very abundant. Bonaparte described what he supposed to be a distinct form, from Italy,
under the name of Columba turricola ; but, so far as I can ascertain, his bird is a mere variety
of the Rock-Dove or of half-wild birds. Baron E. de Selys Longchamps, referring to this
supposed species, writes (Ibis, 1870, p. 453): — "Throughout my travels I everywhere collected
information respecting the Columba turricola of Bonaparte — a species which, according to him,
is very common in the old ruined towers of Tuscany, and differs from Columba livia in that the
rump is not white above, but bluish, as in Columba osnas. The naturalists of Turin, Milan, and
Florence whom I have consulted, do not recognize it, or regard it as an accidental variety of the
half-wild Columba livia crossed with tame Pigeons. I examined a specimen in the Museum at
Pisa ; and Professor Savi is now inclined to the opinion I have just expressed." According to
Mr. Wright (Ibis, 1864, p. 137) the Rock-Dove is " sedentary in the rocks and precijDices of the
southern coast of Malta and Gozo, and on the rocky island of Filfla, where it breeds in con-
siderable numbers. The young birds fly in June, when (the Quail-season being over) the sports-
men amuse themselves by pursuing them in boats. In July their numbers get pretty well
thinned ; probably a good many then leave us, owing to the difficulty of finding a sufficiency of
food. As examples of escaped domestic Pigeons are to be seen breeding in the same localities,
crosses doubtless often occur." In Southern Germany the true wild Rock-Dove appears to be
rare; but semidomestic birds, or those which have become wild, are found in some localities.
I never observed any on the Danube; but Messrs. Elwes and Buckley say (Ibis, 1870, p. 201),
" Rock-Pigeons are found all up the Turkish coast of the Black Sea, and probably in other
localities. The only specimen we got was shot in the harbour of Sevastopol ; and it resembled

15

Columba schimperi more than Columba livia, though the rump was of a lighter colour than the
rest of the back. There were plenty of them about the rocks on the north side of the harbour,
and they appeared quite wild." Von Nordmann remarks that he has not been able to verify its
occurrence in the portions of Southern Russia where he collected, and doubts if it is really found
there. In Asia Minor and in Greece it is tolerably common, and breeds in the high rocks in
many localities. In Greece it is supposed to raise several broods in the season, the first eggs
being deposited in April. In the Cyclades it is said to be resident ; but in Macedonia it is com-
paratively rare in winter. In Crete it breeds in large numbers, as also on Naxos. In the Ionian
Islands, according to Lord Lilford (Ibis, 1860, p. 236) it is "very common, and resident on the
coasts of Albania, Epirus, and Corfu. Near the mouth of the river Kalamo these birds breed
on the bare rocks, after the manner of some of the Gulls. On the peninsula of Pagania there is
a curious natural pit, some 60 or 70 feet in depth, frequented by this species in great numbers.
In this, my servant (who was once lowered into it by a rope for the purpose of forcing out the
Doves) had an encounter with a wild cat, which at last retreated into a side gallery and was lost
sight of. On throwing stones down this pit, a dozen or two of Doves, Blue Thrushes, Black-
birds, Little Owls, and Nuthatches (Sitta syriaca) would often dash out in confusion, with now
and then a large Bat, and on one occasion a Peregrine Falcon. There are small colonies of
Bock-Doves in many parts of the coast of the island of Corfu, particularly at Paleocastrizza and
near Porto Serpente."

Canon Tristram, referring to this bird in Palestine, writes (Ibis, 1868, p. 209): — "Columba
livia is extremely abundant on the coast and highlands west of the Jordan. My specimens can
in no way be distinguished from those from the Orkney Islands. But inland and in the Jordan
valley its place is taken by the allied species, Columba schimperi, Bp. The myriads of these
birds are beyond computation, far exceeding even the clouds of domestic Pigeons. The wadys,
with precipitous cliffs of soft limestone, honeycombed in all directions by caves and fissures, are
admirably adapted for them. Several of these gorges are named from them ' Wady Hamam,'
i. e. Ravine of Pigeons. One of the most remarkable is the Wady Hamam opening on the plain
of Gennesaret, where are the famed robbers' caves, the scene of our principal bird-nesting
exploits, inhabited by thousands of Columba schimperi, whose swift flight and roosting-places far
in the fissures secure them from the attacks of the many Hawks which share the caverns with
them. They likewise swarm in the ravine of the Kelt, in the sides of Mount Quarantania, by
Jericho, and, above all, in the cliffs which shut in the Arnon and the Zerka, in Moab, where
their abundance is alluded to by the prophet Jeremiah. So secure are their nesting-places, that
we never took more than half a dozen sittings of eggs, though we saw hundreds of nesting-holes ;
but their turns and twistings rendered even the device of a stick and a spoon unavailing."

In North-east Africa this Pigeon is very abundant. Von Heuglin says that it is found
throughout Egypt and Nubia, and along the Nile southwards to the rapids of Dar Berber ; and,
according to Brehm, it inhabits Abyssinia and the southern portion of Arabia Petrsea. Dr. Leith
Adams remarks (Ibis, 1864, p. 26), "In Egypt it is not easy to define the limits between
the wild and domesticated Pigeons, their plumage being so much alike. The denizens of the
dove-cotes all preserve the leading characteristics of Columba livia. Many-coloured birds are

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6

uncommon. The two black bars on the wings, and single black bar on the tail, with the white
on the edges of the outer tail-feathers, were present in all the tame birds I have examined. The
permanence of colouring may be owing to the circumstance that no pains whatever are taken -to
improve the breed. Each town and village has many dove-cotes, which are usually the joint property
of several persons ; the Pigeons are only kept for their dung, and allowed to shift for themselves.
In some districts, as at Sioot, it is marvellous the numbers seen crowding round these mud-built
cotes, or feeding in the fields. The most common domestic variety answers to the Columba
schimperi of Bonaparte ; but individuals in all respects agreeing with Columba livia and Columba
schimperi may also be met with among the rocks. No doubt the stragglers from the towns often
take to the wild life ; indeed, at best they are only half domesticated in the dove-cotes, where
I have seldom seen a pied or white Pigeon. The many-coloured varieties are, however, reared
in the native houses, and sometimes join flocks of the other; but they rarely interbreed. From
these circumstances it would appear that the domestic Pigeon of Egypt has reverted very much
towards its original wild state. On one of the walls of the Temple of Medinet Haboo is a
sculpture of the time of Rameses III., B.C. 1297, representing that famous monarch as having
just assumed the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The procession is seen moving on in regal
state, and in all the pomp and splendour of the time, whilst a priest is letting off four Carrier
Pigeons to announce the glad tidings to every quarter of the globe. This is very interesting, as
it shows Pigeons were then used for the purpose of conveying information. According to
Horapollo the flesh of Pigeons was greatly esteemed, and there are records of their having been
eaten as early as B.C. 3000."

In Algeria this Pigeon appears to be by no means uncommon on the southern slope of the
Atlas, where Taczanowski met with it ; and Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., says (Ibis, 1871, p. 295)
of it, " Common in the Mzab, and very easy to shoot, and not nearly so difficult to skin as
some Pigeons. I almost invariably observed them in pairs on the rocks close to the gardens,
but not actually in the palm trees, where all the Doves were. I observed some dark-coloured
varieties among these Cliff-Pigeons at Boghari, doubtless caused by domestic ones which had
wandered away to breed with them. One specimen was shot which, in the colour of the
lower part of the back, approximated to Columba schimperi." M. Favier says that it is the
most numerous of the Pigeons about Tangier, living in the rocks and even in the ramparts
of the town both in a wild and in a domestic state ; and it is found on the mainland of Africa
down to Senegambia and Sierra Leone. I have examined the type of Columba gymnocyclus,
Gray, from Senegambia, and I cannot see that it should be separated from Columba livia. It is
rather dark in colour, about as dark as ordinary examples of so-called Columba intermedia from
India, has the white patch on the rump very restricted, and there is rather a large bare space
round the eye ; but otherwise it does not differ from ordinary examples of Columba livia. Of
islands the Rock-Dove is found on the Azores, Madeira, Canaries, Cape-Verd Islands, and
St. Helena. Mr. Godman says (Ibis, 1872, p. 218) it is "very common in the Canaries,
Madeira, and the Azores, and is also abundant on the Desertas. It breeds in the cliffs over the
sea. In all three groups of islands this species is very variable in colour. The greater part are
exceedingly dark all over ; some have white above the tail, while others want it ; some are like

17

ordinary Rock-Pigeons. I have also seen a few with white patches on the wings. It is possible
these last may be escaped domesticated birds." Vernon Harcourt says that a dark form or
variety of the Rock-Dove is found in Madeira. According to Dr. Bolle this Dove inhabits the
rocky coasts of the Canaries in great numbers, and he observed it near Orotava, at Palma, on
Lobos, and in Lanzarote, even in the interior of the island at several places — for instance, near
El Sobaco. Dr. Dohrn, who records it from the Cape-Verd Islands, adds that it appears to be
restricted to Santiago; and Mr. Mellis states (Ibis, 1870, p. 102) that it is "abundant on St.
Helena, existing both in a wild and a domestic state. In the former, they frequent chiefly a
place called the Waterfall, a perpendicular cliff about 300 feet in height, situated inland about
two miles and a half from the sea, and take their daily flight to the corn-fields of Longwood or
Broadbottom for food."

In Asia the form which has the rump grey and not white appears to predominate ; but, as
elsewhere, both forms occur, and the bird is subject to considerable variation, Mr. Blanford,
referring to the birds found in Persia, says (E. Pers. ii. p. 268), "I am sorry to say I did not
note the range of these two races in Persia. Both certainly occur, and, so far as I observed, the
common form in the south appeared to be intermedia with the ashy rump. Certainly the only
specimen preserved belongs to that race ; and I know that others were shot. Hume obtained
both in Sind. Pigeons are common in the wells and underground water-channels or kanats,
made for irrigation throughout Persia; but at the time of my journey the immense numbers
which usually haunt the great Pigeon-towers about Isfahan and other parts had completely
disappeared. All had died or been killed during the famine. Indeed I saw comparatively very
few Pigeons throughout Central and Northern Persia." I have examined the type of Columba
plumipes, G. Pi. Gray, from Dizful, Persia, now in the British Museum ; and it appears to me to
be a mere variety of Columba lima, not differing in any respect from the ordinary form of the
Rock-Dove, except that it has the anterior portion of the tarsus sparsely covered with feathers.
Mr. Hume says (Stray Feathers, i. p. 218) that he obtained a specimen of our European form of
Columba livia, shot by Dr. Day in the sandhills of the Roree Division, and was informed that the
White-rumped Pigeon was not uncommon there. "Again in the Gaj," he says, " amongst several
true intermedia I obtained one livia and one or two intermediate forms.

" The species that I described with much hesitation as Columba neglecta in my ' Ornithology
of the Yarkand Expedition,' must now, I am convinced, be identified with lima. The wing of
this latter species varies, as I find from Scotch specimens, from 8 - 3 to 9 - 75 ; and after comparing
European and Indian birds, I entertain no doubt of the identity of the Ladak and Scotch
specimens. Cashmere birds, however, which I also class under livia, differ slightly : they have
somewhat less of pure white on the lower back ; and the rest of what is pure white in true livia
is faintly shaded with very pale grey ; in all other respects, size, general hue of plumage, they
are identical with the European bird. Of the Sindh birds two are typical livia, others resemble
the Cashmere birds, and one again seems intermediate between the Cashmere bird and the true
intermedia, though nearest to the former. Below Duryalo, inside the first range, Dr. May saw
large flocks of the White-backed Pigeon similar to the one he shot for me at Roree." Dr.
Jerdon writes (B. of Ind. iii. p. 469) : — " The Blue Pigeon of India is one of the most common

5l2

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8

and abundant birds throughout the country, congregating in lai'ge flocks, and breeding wherever
they can find suitable spots. They are most partial to large buildings, such as churches, pagodas,
mosques, tombs, and the like, frequently entering verandahs of inhabited houses, and building
in the cornices. Holes in walls of cities or towns, too, are favourite places ; and in some parts of
the country they prefer holes in wells, especially, I think, in the west of India, the Deccan,
&c. In default of such spots, they will breed in crevices and cavities of rocks, caverns, and
sea-side cliffs; and I have often noticed that they are particularly partial to rocky cliffs by
waterfalls. The celebrated falls of Gairsoppa are tenanted by thousands of Blue Pigeons, which
here associate with the large Alpine Swift. It is more rare in forest countries generally than in
the open country. It extends from Ceylon throughout India to the Himalayas, and also to
Assam, Sylhet, and Burrnah. It is doubtful if it occurs in Afghanistan, or in other parts of
Central Asia. These Pigeons are held in favour by most natives, and almost venerated by some ;
and if they build in the house of a native, he considers it a most fortunate omen. They are,
however, very destructive to grain, assembling in large flocks in the cold weather; and in general
the natives do not object to their being shot. They are undoubtedly the origin of most of the
domestic Pigeons of India." How far south it ranges I cannot say with any degree of certainty.
Mr. Holdsworth cites two localities in Ceylon which this Pigeon inhabits — Pigeon Island, near
Trincomalie, and Berberyn, not far from Galle ; and Layard mentions their having been killed
about fifty miles inland from Trincomalie. There is also in the late Lord Tweeddale's collection
a specimen from Java which is very dark in colour, and has blotches of blackish slate on the
lesser wing-coverts, the rump being greyish white. In the British Museum there is, however,
one example from India which agrees closely with this bird ; and, judging from Professor
Schlegel's description, examples from Japan must somewhat resemble it. In China, according
to Pere David, both the present species and Columba rupestris are found. He says that he
found the Rock-Dove in Northern China, and observed large numbers inhabiting caverns at
great altitudes in the Tsinling Mountain ; and it is said to be common in Japan. In Dauria
and Southern Siberia generally Columba livia is replaced by what appears to me to be a
fairly good species, Columba rupestris, Bp., which is certainly the bird referred to by Pallas
(Zoogr. Eosso-As. i. p. 560) as variety § of Columba osnas, under the name of Columba rupestris.
This bird may always be recognized by having a broad subterminal white band across the tail,
being otherwise coloured as ordinary British examples of Columba livia. The bird figured by
Henderson and Hume (Lahore to Yark. pi. 31) as Columba eversmanni, Bp., appears to me to be
fairly distinct. There are two specimens in the late Lord Tweeddale's collection which are
distinguishable in having the rump bluish white, the crown and breast richly tinged with
vinaceous, and the upper wing-bar very indistinct, being merely a small patch or two small patches
of black. In one specimen, which was obtained by Severtzoff, and is labelled by him Columba
bracliyura (fusca, Pall.), the back is also tinged with vinaceous.

Essentially a rock-hunting species, the name by which this bird is usually known is a very
appropriate one. With us in Great Britain it is almost exclusively found on the rock-bound
portions of our coasts, whence they make excursions to the cultivated portions of the country
in search of food, often collecting in large flocks in the winter season. It feeds on grain of

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various kinds, seeds of many species of wild plants, small shell-snails, &c. &c; and Dr. Saxby
says that during ten months of the year, when corn is not to be procured, it subsists chiefly on
the roots of the couch grass, Triticum repens, and the seeds of various troublesome weeds, such
as Sinapis arvensis, Eaphanis raphanistrum, Plantago maritima, and Capsella bursa-pastoris ; and
on account of the amount of these plants it destroys it certainly, to some extent, deserves a good
word from the agriculturist, though at the same time I cannot but acknowledge that, where it
can get it, it devours large quantities of grain.

In general habits the Rock-Dove very closely resembles our domestic Pigeon, and is,
indeed, the stock from which the latter has sprung. Macgillivray gives (Brit. B. i. p. 273) so
excellent an account of its habits, that I cannot do better than transcribe his notes, as follows : —
" When searching for food they walk about with great celerity, moving the head backwards and
forwards at each step, the tail sloping towards the ground, and the tips of the wings tucked up
over it. In windy weather they usually move in a direction more or less opposite to the blast,
and keep their body nearer to the ground than when it is calm, the whole flock going together.
When startled they rise suddenly, and by striking the ground with their wings produce a
crackling noise. When at full speed they fly with great celerity, the air whistling against
their pinions. Their flight is very similar to that of the Ringed and Golden Plovers, birds
which in form approach very nearly to the Pigeon, as may be seen more especially on com-
paring their skeletons; and as this affinity has not been observed by any other person, I would
direct the attention of ornithologists to it. They usually alight abruptly when the place is
open and clear, and, if very hungry, immediately commence their search ; although on alighting
they frequently stand and look around them for a few moments. On other occasions, however,
they fly over the fields in circles, descending gradually. When flying from the rocks to the
places where they procure their food, and when returning in the evening, they do not mount
high in the air ; and when passing over an eminence they fly so low as almost to touch it.
When the wind is very high, and their course is against it, they fly in the same manner, taking
advantage of the shelter. It used to afford me much pleasure, and probably would be interesting
to most people, to observe from one of the wild headlands of Harris the Pigeons flying swiftly
and silently towards their homes, along the cliffs, while every now and then a string of Cormo-
rants, Gannets, or Guillemots would come up, and a straggling flock of Gulls pursue their route
in a desultory manner.

"The note of the Rock-Dove resembles the syllables coo-roo-coo quickly repeated, the last
prolonged. It is monogamous, as I apprehend all wild birds, even the gallinaceous, are ; and its
nuptials are celebrated with much cooing and circumambulation on the part of the male. A
love-scene among the rocks is really an intei-esting sight. Concealed in a crevice or behind a
projecting cliff, you see a Pigeon alight beside you, and stand quietly for some time, when the
whistling of pinions is heard, and the male bird shoots past like an arrow, and is already beside
his mate. Scarcely has he made a rapid survey of the place, when, directing his attention to the
only beautiful object which he sees, he approaches her, erecting his head, swelling out his
breast by inflating his crop, and spreading his tail, at the same time uttering the well-known
coo-roo-coo, the soft and somewhat mournful sounds of which echo among the cliffs. The

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female, shy and timorous, sits close to the rock, shifting her position a little as the male
advances, and sometimes stretching out her neck as if to repel him by blows. The male
continues his strutting and cooing, until the female, inadvertently coming upon the edge of
the shelf, flies off to the dark recesses of the neighbouring cave, where she has scarcely alighted
when her lover is again by her side.

" Matters go on in this manner, and in the meantime a nest is gradually formed, which
consists of withered stalks and blades of grass or other plants, not very neatly arranged, but
disposed so as to answer the intended purpose. Two beautiful white eggs, of an elliptical form,
one an inch and four twelfths in length, one inch and one twelfth in breadth, the other a little
shorter, are then deposited ; and in due time the young make their appearance. During incuba-
tion the male supplies his mate with food, which she picks from his throat as he forces it up
from the crop. Even at other times the female often goes up to the male, introduces her bill
on one side into his mouth, and obtains a grain of barley or morsel of other food. In about
three weeks the young come abroad, and, after being fed and instructed by their parents for some
days, are left to shift for themselves.

" The old birds soon repair their nest, and rear another brood. I cannot speak with
certainty as to the precise number of broods raised in the course of a season ; but I know that
there are at least two. The first eggs are laid about the middle of April ; and the latest young
are seen about the end of September. It appears to me probable, from circumstances which
have come under my observation, that the same nest is used for different broods ; and it is
commonly believed, and not improbable, that these birds pair for life. The young are fed by
their parents, who, applying their open mouth to that of the nestling, the mandibles of which
enter the pharynx, force up the food from their crop so as to be within reach of the bill of the
young, which all the while flaps its wings, and utters a loud cheeping note, indicative of its
eagerness to have its wants supplied."

As above stated, the nest of the Rock-Dove is a mere flat collection of dried or even fresh
grasses, a few sprigs of heather, or a little seaweed ; and the number of eggs is two. These latter
are pure white, rather glossy in texture, and in size nearly the same as those of Columba cenas.
Like all its allies the Rock-Dove drinks often, and when in desert places will fly far to obtain
water. Mr. Taylor remarked that those which used to come to the Nile to drink would actually
settle and sit on the surface of the water for some time like Sea-Gulls.

The specimens figured are — in the foreground the ordinary white-rumped form, and in the
background that with the dark rump.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 , a, 2 • Faeroes, May 1862 (A. Benzon). c, <3 , d, $. Tagania, Albania, November 1871 (Hanbury-
Barclay). e. Bizerta, Algeria, February 1858 {P. L. Sclater), /, d . Futtegurh, India, October 23rd
{A. Anderson).

21

ii

E Mus. Lord Tiveeddale.

a, b. Coorg. c, d. Malabar (Woorst). e, <3 . Umballah, November 1866 (Beavari). f,<3. Western India,
November 1876. g,2. Gilgit, July 1876 (Biddulph). h, 6 . Yassin, September 1876 (Biddulph). h.
Java.

E Mus. Brit. Beg.

a. W. Africa, type of C. gymnocyclus. b. Sierra Leone, c. Dizful, Persia, type of C. plumipes. d, e. Nepal
{Hodgson), f. India.

E Mus. E. Hargitt.
a, <j , b, c, 2 . Orkney (Dunn) .

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, g . Orkneys, January 5th (Dunn) . b, c, 6 . Malaga, April 27th. d, 6 ■ Tangiers.

22

458

WOOD PIGEON.

COLUMBA /ENAS.

23

COLUMBA (ENAS.

(STOCK-DOVE.)

Columba cenas sive vinago, Briss. Orn. i. p. 86 (1760).

1 Columba saxatilis, Briss. torn. cit. p. 84 (1760).

Columba osnas, Linn. Fauna Suec. p. 75 (1761).

Columba anas, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 279 (partim, cum livia confusa; 1766).

"i Columba saxatilis, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 769 (1788, ex Briss.).

Columba cavorum, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 492 (1831).

Columba arborea, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 257 (1855).

Palumbcena columbella, Bp. Cat. Parzud. p. 9 (1856).

Palumbcena cenas (L.), Gray, Hand-list, ii. p. 233. no. 9241 (1870).

Colombe, colombin, French ; Pombo trocaz, Portuguese; Hamam el Berri, Moorish ; Hohl-
taube, Holztaube, German ; de kleine Boschduif, Dutch ; Lille Skovdue, Huldue, Danish ;
Skovdue, Norwegian ; Skogsdufva, Swedish ; Sinikyyhka, Finnish ; Dikey-Golub, Russian.

Figurce notabiles.

Werner, Atlas, Pigeons, pi. 3 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 28 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 29. fig. 4 ;
Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 151 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 31. fig. 3 ; Gould, B. of
Eur. pi. 244; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 2; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 184; Roux, Orn.
Prov. pi. 244.

c? ad, capite, collo, dorso, scapularibus et tectricibus alarum superioribus cinereo-cseruleis vix schistaceo tinctis :
plumis in colli lateribus et collo postico viridi metallico nitentibus : uropygio et supracaudalibus
pallide caeruleis : remigibus cinereo-nigrieantibus, extus cinereo niarginatis, secundariis ad basin
pallide cinereo-cseruleis, secundariis intimis nonnullis et tectricibus majoribus cinereo-nigro notatis :
cauda, ad basin caeruleo-cinereEi, versus apicem pallide cinerea et plumbeo apicata : corpore subtus
cinereo-cseruleo, pectore superiore rufescenti-vinaceo : rostro ad basin rubro, et versus apicem flavido ;
iride rufa : pedibus rubris.

5 mari similis, sed sordidior et vix minor.

Juv. sordidior nee collo viridi metallico notato, et secundariis intimis cum tectricibus alarum vix nigro-cinereo
notatis.

Adult Male (Sheringham, Norfolk, 11th April). Head, neck, back, scapulars, and wing-coverts bluish grey
with a dull slaty tinge j feathers on the sides of the neck and hind neck richly glossed with lustrous
metallic green; rump and upper tail-coverts light bluish grey; quills blackish grey, externally margined
with lighter grey, the secondaries light bluish grey at the base; several of the innermost secondaries
and of the wing-coverts above marked with a patch of blackish grey; wing-coverts more blue and
lighter than the back ; tail at the base bluish grey, then light grey, the terminal portion being dark

24

lead-grey ; underparts bluish grey, except the upper breast, which is vinous red ; beak red at the base,
becoming yellow towards the tip, the soft portion on the base of the upper mandible greyish ; iris red ;
legs pinkish red. Total length about 13 inches, culmen 085, wing 8"45, tail 4 - 7, tarsus l'l.

Adult Female (Sheringham) . Resembles the male, but is less in size, and a trifle duller in general colora-
tion of pulmage. Culmen 0"85 inch, wing 8'2, tail 4 - 6, tarsus l'l.

Young (Belgium). Duller in colour than the adult ; the green on the neck is wanting, and the dark markings
on the secondaries and the coverts are scarcely noticeable.

In Great Britain the distribution of this species is very different from that of the Bing-Dove, and
far less extensive. Mr. A. G. More writes (Ibis, 1865, p. 140) as follows : — " There is a peculiarity
in the distribution of this bird, since it seems to be absent during the breeding-season from several
of the south western counties, in which, and even in Dorsetshire, it appears chiefly as a winter
visitor. Still there is good authority for its breeding in Gloucester (Bev. F. J. Scott), Hereford,
Shropshire, and perhaps in North Wales (Eyton). The nest has been found both in East and
West Yorkshire, but hardly, I believe, beyond the 54th degree of latitude. The bird seems to
be most numerous in some of the midland and eastern counties of England, and has not been
observed in either Scotland or Ireland. Mr. J. F. Brockholes, who has taken especial pains to
identify the species, tells me that the Stock-Dove breeds regularly in Cheshire and South Lanca-
shire, where the nest is placed in fir trees and ivy. The Bev. O. Fickard-Cambridge describes
the bird as building in exactly the same kind of locality, among matted ivy, close to the trunks
of cedars and fir trees, more often in the holes of old trees where limbs have been broken off."
In Norfolk, Mr. Stevenson states (B. of Norf. i. p. 355), " although far less numerous, and more
locally distributed than the last species, the Stock-Dove is plentiful enough at certain times of
the year and in certain parts of the country, particularly the north-eastern and south-western
districts. In the latter (with the exception of about four months, from the middle of September
to the middle of January, or even later if the winter be much prolonged) it is found, if not in
great abundance when compared with other species, yet in sufficient numbers to be one of the
most characteristic birds of that open country. During the latter part of the autumn and
beginning of winter, though not perhaps absolutely wanting, yet it only occasionally appears,
and then generally flocked in company with Bing-Doves." In the north of England it becomes
rarer ; but Mr. A. W. Johnson informs me that it has lately been found breeding in North-
umberland, the bird having been shot off her eggs. In Scotland it is of rare, almost doubtful
occurrence. It is stated to have occurred in Caithness ; but Mr. Bobert Gray appears to doubt
the correctness of this statement, as he only includes it in the article on C. palumbus ; but he
adds that one was shot at Deerness, in Orkney, in October 1861. It has not been recorded
from Ireland, nor yet from Greenland, Iceland, or the Faeroes; but it is not uncommon in
Scandinavia, and Mr. Collett says that it breeds commonly in the south-eastern lowlands,
especially in Smaalehnene, on Modum, Bomerike, and in Hedemarken, and is in some localities
commoner than C. palumbus. In the western portions of Norway it is rarer, and only occa-
sionally seen at Stavanger and Bergen. North of the fells its occurrence is uncertain ; and
Sommerfelt observed a single specimen in October 1861. In Sweden, according to Sundevall,

25

3

its northern range coincides as nearly as possible with, that of the oak, it being found up to
60-61° N. lat. It breeds at Gefle, and in the southern portion of Dalecarlia and Wermland.
Von Wright says that it occurs only in south-western Finland, where, especially near Abo, it is
veiy common, as well as between that town and Nystad. Near Helsingfors it is seen both in
the spring and autumn, and occurs now and then as far up as Kuopio. He shot oue at
Haminanlaks in November, when it was full winter ; but it usually arrives early in the spring,
leaving in the autumn. Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that it is occasionally found breeding in
the Romanoff, Jaroslaf, and Moscow Governments, and is common in those of Smolensk and
Vladimir ; and Bogdanoff says that in Kazan it is more numerous than Columba palumbus. On
the eastern slope of the Ural it was found by Sabanaeff commonly up to 56^° N. lat., but he did
not meet with it near Ekaterinburg. It is found in the Baltic provinces and throughout North
Germany, where, Borggreve says, it frequents only the non-evergreen woods. Naumann states that
it is rare in no part of Germany, and in some districts very common. It is there a migrant, and
only during mild winters does an odd straggler remain over the winter. Mr. Benzon informs me
that in Denmark it is found during the summer in all almost all the large woods, especially beech-
and oak-woods where there are hollow trees, but it is nowhere numerous. Sometimes, however,
it is very numerous on passage, especially during the spring migration. Baron von Droste
Hiilshoff says that it is rare on the island of Borkum, where it occurs on passage. In Holland
and Belgium it is rare ; and in the latter country, Baron de Selys Longchamps says, it is usually
seen on passage early in November and in March, but is sometimes found nesting in the larger
woods. Throughout France it is tolerably generally distributed, and breeds in the northern
districts, numbers arriving in the southern districts in the autumn, and remaining over the winter.
Professor Barboza du Bocage records it as being common in Portugal ; but Colonel Irby says
(Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 133) that he only once observed it in Spain, near Gibraltar, in the spring.
Bailly says that it is less numerous in Savoy than the Ring-Dove, and- is most frequently seen
singly or in pairs. It is usually seen from the 5th or the 12th October to the 10th November,
most frequently during heavy gales from the north. It passes through Italy also in consider-
able numbers in the autumn, but is less common on the spring migration. It is said to breed,
though very rarely, in Lombardy. Mr. C. A. Wright says (Ibis, 1864, p. 137) that it occurs in
Malta in the spring and autumn, but does not breed in the island. In Southern Germany it is
tolerably common and generally distributed. Dr. Fritsch states (J. f. O. 1871, p. 311) that it is
common in Bohemia, in the woods where there are plenty of hollow trees. It does not occur in
the vicinity of Prague, and is seldom brought into the market of that town. Mr. Seidensacher
observed it during the nesting-season at Sallach ; and in the autumn it occurs in Styria in large
flocks. It occurs in the countries skirting the Danube, and is numerous in Transylvania during
the summer season. Dr. Kriiper says that it is found in Greece on passage, but is not very
common, and has not been known to breed there. Colonel Drummond-Hay states that numbers
winter in Macedonia, but it is only met with singly in Corfu ; and Lord Lilford writes (Ibis T
1860, p. 236), "Common about the shores of the Gulf of Arta in March 1857. I have seen
single birds at all seasons of the year near Butrinto and Kataito, and once or twice in the
island of Corfu." In Southern Russia, Mr. Goebel says, it is very common in the autumn, but
rather scarce in the spring, arriving, however, very early from the south ; and Professor von

T

26

Nordmann says that, without being rare, it is much less numerous than the Ring-Dove where
it also, to some extent, remains to breed. It occurs in Asia Minor, near Smyrna ; and Canon
Tristram shot several in Palestine, in the woods near Jericho. Its occurrence in North-east
Africa is somewhat doubtful. A specimen, said to be from Egypt, is in the Berlin Museum ; but
it was not observed there by Heuglin, Brehm, or Eiippell. It is, however, found in North-
western Africa; and is stated by Loche to be common in Algeria, especially in February and
October, on passage ; and he adds also that it breeds there. Canon Tristram writes (Ibis, 1860,
p. 69), "I shot several out of a large flock of this bird in the Dayat of Tihlremet, between
El Aghouat and the Mzab country, in the month of November. This was the only occasion
on which I met with it in the Sahara ; but it is very common in all the wooded districts of the
Atlas." Colonel Irby (I.e.), referring to its occurrence in Tangier, writes as follows: — "It
is neither mentioned by Favier nor Mr. Drake as occurring in Morocco. I found it near the
Foudak at the same time and place that the Wood-Pigeons were so abundant. It is sufficiently
common to be known to the Moors there by the above-mentioned name, which, by the way, is
the same as that used for the next species (C. lima). They were in some numbers; and I shot one
or two for identification, being further informed by the Moors that they nested in holes of trees.
They were evidently breeding at that time ; but we failed to discover a nest during the very short
period that we remained there. I also noticed the Stock-Dove in April, near Larache."

. To the eastward the Stock-Dove is found as far as Persia : Messrs. Dickson and Eoss sent
specimens from the vicinity of Erzeroum ; both De Filippi and Menetries obtained it in the
Caucasus ; and Major St. John shot it on the Persian plateau ; but Mr. Blanford did not meet
with it. I have examined a specimen in the British Museum from near Erzeroum, and one from
Bagdad, which are identical with our European bird. In India it is replaced by an allied species,
Columba eversmanni (Bp.), of which I have not had an opportunity of examining a specimen,
but which differs, Dr. Jerdon writes (B. of India, ii. p. 463), in being " smaller than Columba oenas,
with a proportionally shorter tail, barely reaching beyond the tips of the wings. It differs, too,
from the European bird in the rump being greyish instead of white (?), in the crown being tinged
with vinaceous, in the winglet having less black, and in the grey band of the tail, conspicuous in
the European bird, being barely discernible in the Indian."

As may be imagined, the Stock-Dove resembles the Ring-Dove in its habits ; but there are
many differences, easily noticed by a practised eye. In its flight the present species is lighter and
more elegant, and when it rises on the wing it does so without the loud flapping sound almost
always produced by the Ring-Dove ; and in its mode of flight it much more closely resembles the
Rock-Dove than that species, being quite as swift if not swifter. Peaceful and quiet in its habits,
it is fond of the company of others of its own species ; and not only do they collect together in
the autumn and winter, but also during the breeding-season, and in suitable localities several
pairs may not unfrequently be found nesting in close proximity to each other. In all its move-
ments the Stock-Dove is graceful ; and it walks on the ground with ease, progressing by short
steps like the tame Pigeon, every now and again nodding its head as it walks. When seated on
a bough or branch it sits rather upright ; and it usually has some favourite perch, where it will
sit early in the day preening its feathers in the morning sun : it most frequently selects some
very elevated branch, from which it can have a tolerably clear view of the surrounding country.

27

Though shy and extremely cautious, it is by no means so shy as the Ring-Dove, and will not
forsake its nest when disturbed so soon as that species. It is extremely affectionate when paired ;
and should one be killed, its mate will search long after it ; also, if the female is disturbed when
on her nest, the male (who is generally on the watch not far distant) will at once join her on the
wing. Its note is a short, somewhat indistinct coo, which is not very often uttered ; and the love-
note which the male utters in the pairing-season differs considerably from that of the Ring-Dove,
and bears a closer resemblance to that of the Rock-Dove, but is not so clear. This note is uttered
whilst the bird is seated on its favourite perch, or when near the nest; when joined by his mate
this cooing note is uttered more rapidly and with greater earnestness, especially before the act of
pairing, and, like the tame Pigeon, it bills its mate with evident tenderness and affection. The
young birds when in the nest utter a piping note like the young of the tame Pigeon.

Nidification commences with the present species rather early, as old birds will raise
as many as three broods in the season, and birds of the preceding year two. It selects the
hollow of a tree for the purpose ; and hence its German name Hohltaube (or Holedove) ; but in
some localities it breeds in rabbit-burrows, or, it is also stated, in other convenient holes in the
ground. The nest is very simple, being merely a scanty collection of slender twigs or stems of
plants, sometimes a few fine roots or a little moss ; or occasionally only a few dry leaves are
collected together to form a bed for the eggs. Both male and female incubate in turn, and sit
very close ; and both assist in feeding the young, which remain in the nest for fully three weeks
after leaving the egg, when they are able to fly, and are led by their parents into the fields and
taught to forage for themselves. When they are able to do this, the old birds commence to
make preparations for a second brood. The old nest-hole, when the young leave it, is in such a
filthy state that it cannot possibly be used again ; and therefore another suitable place has to be
selected, which is done without much trouble, as they are not difficult to please as regards a
nest-hole. In Norfolk, Mr. Stevenson writes (B. of Norf. i. p. 356), " it occupies the deserted
rabbit-burrows upon warrens ; it places its eggs about a yard from the entrance, generally upon
the bare sand, sometimes using a small quantity of dried roots, &c. barely sufficient to keep the
eggs from the ground. Besides such situations, on the heaths it nestles under the thick furze
bushes ( Ulex europcea), which are impervious to rain, in consequence of the sheep and rabbits
eating off the young and tender shoots as they grow, always preferring those bushes that have a
small opening made by the rabbits near the ground. A few pairs occasionally breed in the holes
of decayed trees ; this is of rare occurrence in this district." The eggs, two in number, are pure
white in colour, usually rather elongated oval in form, measuring about 1| by 1^ inch in size ;
and incubation lasts about seventeen or eighteen days.

The Stock-Dove feeds on grain and seeds of various kinds, and when numerous is not unfre-
quently a great pest to the farmer. Wheat, oats, rye, linseed, and rapeseed, especially the two
latter, are eagerly devoured ; and it also feeds largely on the seeds of various wild plants.
Naumann says that he shot a young bird of the previous year in February, and found in the crop
and stomach barley, wheat, oats, wild oats, seeds of Polygonum convolvulus, P. aviculare, turnip
seed, and many grains of the following sorts, viz. Vicia, Lathyrus, Orobus, and Astragalus, inter-
mixed with coarse grit and a few small stones. It also feeds on the seeds of conifers, acorns,
beech-nuts, and blueberries.

t2

28

At midday and in the evening the Stock-Dove visits the water with tolerable regularity, and
always seeks for running (or at least clear) water, both for drinking and for bathing ; for it is very
fond of a bath.

It is said sometimes to interbreed with the tame Pigeon, as well as with the Rock-Dove ; but
from personal observation I have not been able to verify this, and Naumann says that he has not
personally known the tame and the wild birds to interbreed.

Writing on the occurrence and habits of the Stock-Dove in Rhenish Prussia, Mr. Sachse
says : — "With us this bird is a true forest species ; it arrives in mild seasons as early as February,
but otherwise in March, and comes in flocks of fifteen to thirty individuals. In the autumn it
leaves from the end of October to the middle of November ; but not unfrequently flocks remain
with us throughout the winter. It frequents old thin oak and beech woods,- always selecting
localities where there are plenty of hollow trees with dead tops ; and as these are getting scarcer
here, the Stock-Dove is by degrees becoming rarer. In the winter it feeds on beech-nuts and
acorns, and during severe weather it visits the gardens and eats the cabbages. In spring it feeds
on seeds and buds of the rape and turnip ; and I have found its crop stuffed with these. In the
summer it eats winter seed, rape seed, wheat, barley, &c. They pair in March ; and the first eggs
are laid from early in April to early in May. In 1876 I found two eggs on the 9th of April.
They raise two or three broods in the season ; and I have found young unfledged birds as late as
August."

The specimen figured is the adult male above described, and is in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, d , b, 2 ■ Sheringham Hall, Cromer, Norfolk, April 11th, 1876 (H. M. Upcher). c. Kent, May 1875 [Cooke).
d. Albania (Hanbury Barclay). e,juv. Belgium (Dubois).

E. Mus. Brit. Reg.
a. Erzeroum (Dickson <5f Ross), b. Bagdad.

459

bolle's pigeon.

COLUMBA BOLLii.

29

COLUMBA BOLLIL

(BOLLE'S PIGEON.)

Wolumba bouvrgi, Bolle, J. fur Orn. 1857, p. 329, nee Bp.
Columba bollii, Godman, Ibis, 1872, p. 217.

Figura nulla.

<J ad. capite, nucha, et dorso centraliter caerulescenti-schistaceis, colli lateribus et collo postico cum dorso
superiore viridescente et purpurascente iridescentibus : colli lateribus ex parte seneo notatis : corpore
supra cum scapularibus et tectricibus alarum saturate schistaceo-plumbeis : uropygio cserulescenti
lavato : remigibus nigricantibus : Cauda, nigricante, fascia lata subapicali cserulescenti-plumbea, trans-
vittata : pectore et abdomine superiore rufescenti-vinaceis : gutture, abdomine imo et subcaudalibus
sehistaceis, illo vix viridescenti nitente : rostro, pedibus et regione oculari corallinis : iride straminea :
unguibus nigricantibus.

Adult Male (Teneriffe) . Head, neck, and centre of the back dark dove-blue with a slaty tinge ; sides of
the neck and hind neck glossed with green, a small portion of the feathers on the sides of the neck
tipped with coppery red, fore part of the back extending to the sides of the back richly glossed with
reddish purple, the hind crown being also slightly glossed with this colour ; upper parts dark plumbeous-
slate, bluer on the rump ; quills blackish ; tail blackish, broadly subterminated with dark dove-blue,
and finally tipped with dusky slate ; throat down to the breast slaty blue, slightly glossed with green ;
breast and abdomen deep vinous-, almost coppery red ; flanks and lower abdomen with the under tail-
coverts deep bluish slate ; bill red, darker at the tip ; legs coral-red ; iris straw-colour ; edge round the
eye coral-red. Total length about 14 - 5 inches, culmen TO, gape 1 - 1, wing 8"2, tail 6 - 2, tarsus l - 2,
middle toe with claw l - 5.

Adult Female (Orotava). Does not differ from the male, except that it is perhaps a trifle less brightly
coloured.

Young (Taganana). Is much duller in general tinge of colour than the old bird, and the coppery red on the
sides of the neck is merely indicated, the rich green gloss being also nearly absent.

This Pigeon, which had hitherto been considered identical with Columba laurivora, has only
lately been shown by Mr. Godman to be distinct. This gentleman only met with it in the
island of Teneriffe; but it would appear from what Dr. Carl Bolle writes that it may very
possibly occur elsewhere in the Canaries. This gentleman writes (I. c.) as follows : — " There is
no doubt that there is on the island of Gomera a second species of Pigeon which is by no means
rare, and inhabits the Monte hueco. I have not seen it myself; but the natives speak positively
respecting its occurrence. It is said to be somewhat less than Columba laurivora, bluish ash-
grey, with a good deal of white on the tail, and is therefore called Babiblanco (white-tail). It
is said to inhabit the forests at a greater altitude than the true Trocaz Pigeon, and to keep apart
from that bird." Whether the species referred to by Dr. Bolle is the present species or true

2n

30

C. laurivora it is impossible to determine, until such time as examples are procured from Gomera
for examination and comparison. At present all the information I can with certainty glean
respecting this species is that given by Mr. Godman, who writes (I. c.) as follows: — " For some
time I was under the impression that this bird was not to be distinguished from the white-tailed
one ; but on a further examination of the type specimen of G. laurivora in the Paris Museum,
and on a close comparison of my skins with that in the British Museum, I have no doubt of there
being two species of Wood-Pigeon in the Canaries. I procured, in all, nine skins, which include
both sexes and young birds. The first I shot in a ravine above Orotava, where I had been told
they came to feed in the early morning upon the fruit of the laurel (Persea indica). There
were three or four more in this flock; but though I watched for them afterwards for two or
three days under the same tree, they would not come within shot. I saw this Pigeon also in the
laurel-forest of Taraconte, where I spent a couple of days after them without success. I here,
however, found three old nests, which the ' Guarda ' told me belonged to this Pigeon. They
were either in the tree-heath or the laurel trees, about twenty feet from the ground, and built
of sticks, much the same as our Wood-Pigeon's. I afterwards found this bird more abundant in
the forest of Taganana, at the east end of the island, about 5000 feet above the sea, where I
procured the rest of my specimens. It is a very shy bird ; and the best way to get them is to
hide under the laurel trees where it comes to feed. It is occasionally seen, early in the morning,
lower down, upon the patches of corn, but always retires to the dark forest during the middle of
the day, at which time they do not fly much, unless disturbed. Those I killed had their crops
full of the fruit of the Persea indica."

The eggs of this Pigeon are, as yet, unknown, but they will doubtless be found closely to
resemble those of our common Wood-Pigeon. I am indebted to Mr. F. DuCane Godman for the
only specimen of this Pigeon I possess ; but those in his collection, which I have also had on
loan, being somewhat better-coloured specimens, I have selected one of these latter to figure and
describe, it being the type from which Mr. Godman's description was made.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a, J. Taganana, Teneriffe, 10th May, 1871 (F. D. Godman).

U Mus. Salvin and Godman.

a, 6 , b, c, ? . Taganana, Teneriffe, 13th March, 1871 (F. D. G.). d, $ . Taganana, 10th May. e, $ . Orotava,
21st April. f,6,-g,$. Taganana, 24th May, 1871 (F. D. G.).

460

X

CANARIAN PIGEON

COIUMBA LAURIVORA

31

COLUMBA LAUEIVOEA.

(CANARIAN PIGEON.)

Columba laurivora, Webb & Berthelot, Orn. Can. p. 26 (1841).

Trocaza laurivora (Webb & Berth.), Bp. Compt. Bend. Ac. Sc. 1856, p. 837 and p. 948 (1857).

Figures notabiles.

Webb & Berth, op. cit. pi. 3 (lower figure) ; Knip, Pig. ii. pi. 43 ; Bp. Icon, des Pigeons,
p. lxix.

Ad. capite et collo sordide plumbeis, pileo et nucha viridescenti nitentibus : corpore supra saturate schistaceo,
alis supra bruuuescentioribus : remigibus saturate fumoso-brunneis : cauda. ad basin sordide schistaceo-
cinerea, pallidiore quam in Columba bollii, dimidio apicali pallide cinereo-alba : guise et gutturis plumis
ad basin rufescenti-vinaceis viridi apicatis : colli lateribus et collo postico viridescenti- et purpurascenti-
iridescentibus : corpore subtus rufescenti-vinaceo fere aeneo : subcaudalibus sordide scbistaceis : rostro,
pedibus et regione oculari corallinis : iride straminea.

Adult (Canaries). Head, neck, and back dull dove-slate, crown and nape glossed with green; sides of the
neck glossed with purplish red and green ; upper surface of the wings slate, with a brownish tinge ;
quills dull dark brown; tail dull brownish ashy grey, much paler than in C. bollii, on the central
portion gradually becoming paler, until the tip is light grey; on the under surface of the tail the
terminal portion is whitish ; feathers on the throat reddish at the base and tipped with greenish ; rest
of the underparts coppery red, the under tail-coverts only being dull slaty blue ; bill red, darker at the
tip; legs coral-red; iris straw-colour. Total length about 14 - 5 inches, culmen 1*2, wing 8 - 6, tail 62,
tarsus 1*5, middle toe with claw 1/82.

But very little is known respecting this Pigeon ; and so far as I can ascertain, there seem to be
only two examples preserved in public museums, one the type at Paris, and the second in the
British Museum. Although at the first glance this species tolerably closely resembles Columba
bollii, yet a careful comparison at once proves their specific distinctness — the chief points of
difference being that the present species has the upper parts paler and browner, the head glossed
with green and not with purple ; the underparts are redder, and the tail is much paler, has no
band on it, but the terminal portion is dull greyish white. Though so rare in collections, it
would appear to be tolerably common in the Western Canaries ; but having been so constantly
confused with Columba trocaz and Columba bollii, it is impossible to state with any degree of
certainty which islands it inhabits; it would, however, appear to be confined to the western
group. Whether the Pigeon referred to by Dr. Bolle as being found on the island of Gomera is
the present species or C. bollii it is difficult to say ; but Messrs. Webb and Berthelot refer the
Pigeon of that island to the present species, though at the same time they confused all three
species under the name of C. laurivora ; but, as elsewhere stated, they appear to have met with
true C. laurivora in the Western Canaries.

2q

32

2

Like the other two species of Pigeon inhabiting these islands, it is an inhabitant of the true
forest, frequenting the wilder and more inaccessible localities, whither it has been driven owing
to the persecution it has met with ; for when the islands were first discovered it is stated to have
been eminently trustful and fearless. Messrs. Webb and Berthelot say that it " is seldom found
away from the forest, where its food is to be found ; this consists of the berries of the laurel
(Lanrus indica), and occasionally of tender buds of the mocan (Visnea mocanera), as we have
ascertained by dissecting several specimens. This food, especially the berries of the laurel,
impregnates the flesh of these birds with an aromatic perfume, and gives it a slight bitter taste,
which is by no means disagreeable; and this Pigeon is justly looked on as one of the daintiest
of our birds : nor is this opinion as to its fitness for the table new ; for we find the same views
expressed in the Middle Ages. In the history of the navigators who left Lisbon in 3 341, under
the auspices of Alphonse IV. of Portugal, we read that on one of the Canary isles (Gomere)
they found in the forests wild Pigeons, which they knocked down with sticks and stones, and
ate. ' And these Pigeons,' they say, ' were larger than ours, and tasted as good, if not better, et
in eddem insuld lignce jilurimce et palumbes, qiios baculis et lapidibus capieiant et comedehant,
invenerunt. Hos dicunt majores nostris et gustui tales aut meliores? It is, however, now no
longer so easy to procure these Pigeons ; for having been persecuted they have become "wild, and
one can only get at them on the tops of the large trees where they are accustomed to perch.
They are easiest killed at their drinking-places ; for the forests are too dense to allow one to
shoot them flying. We have frequently heard them overhead without being able to distinguish
them, owing to the foliage amongst which they were perched."

I have only seen one specimen of this rare Pigeon, that in the British Museum, which is
the specimen described above, and figured ; but Mr, God man, who examined the type in the
Paris Museum, says that it agrees closely with this bird, both showing the peculiar character in
the coloration of the terminal portion of the tail.

It is to be hoped that some collector who may hereafter visit the Canaries will endeavour
to obtain more specimens, and to gather further information, beyond what little we at present
know, respecting the habits of this rare Pigeon.

46

MADEIRAN PIGEON

COLUMBA TROCAZ.

33

COLUMBA T'ROCAZ.

(MADEIRAN PIGEON.)

Columba trocaz, Heineken, in Brewst. Journ. 1829, p. 228.
Columba laurivora, Webb & Berth. Orn. Can. p. 26 (1841, partim).
Trocaza bouvryi, Bp. Compt. Bend, xliii. pp. 837, 948 (1856).
Trocaza trocaz, Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 45 (1857, partim).

Figurce notabiles.

Jard. & Selby, 111. Orn. pi. 98 ; Webb & Berthelot, Orn. Can. pi. 3 (upper figure) ; Bp.
Icon, des Pig. pi. 70.

6 ad. capite et collo caerulescenti-cinereis vix schistaceo lavatis, plumis in nucha, et capitis lateribus argenteo
apicatis : dorso et tectricibus alarum (majoribus exceptis) saturate plumbescenti-schistaceis, dorso
postico viridi et purpureo nitente : uropygio cserulescenti-plumbeo : remigibus nigricantibus, primariis
vix cano marginatis, secundariis intimis schistaceo tinctis, tectricibus primariorum cffirulescenti-canis :
cauda. plumbescenti-schistacea, fascia magna subapicali cserulescenti-cana transnotata : pectore rufes-
centi-vinaceo : corpore subtus imo schistaceo : rostro corallino, ad apicem nigricante : iride straminea :
pedibus et regione oculari corallinis, unguibus nigricantibus.

? ad. haud a mare distiuguenda.

Adult Male. Head and neck slaty dove-blue, feathers on the hind neck and sides of the neck tipped with
light silvery or French grey ; back and lesser wing-coverts dark plumbeous slate on the fore part of the
back and hind neck, glossed with purple and green ; rump rather bluer than the rest of the upper parts ;
qudls blackish, some of the primaries with a narrow greyish blue margin, the inner secondaries tinged
with slate ; primary coverts dove-blue ; tail dark plumbeous slate, crossed by a broad subterminal dove-
blue band; breast vinous red; rest of the underparts slaty blue; bill and space round the eye coral-red,
the former tipped with blackish ; iris straw-colour ; legs coral-red ; claws black. Total length about
16 inches, culmen TO, gape T2, wing 9"2, tail 7 - 4, tarsus l - 38, middle toe with claw 2'0.

Female. Similar to the male.

The range of this Pigeon is extremely restricted ; for, so far as I can ascertain, it has not with
certainty been obtained elsewhere than in Madeira, unless, indeed, it may have been confused
with Columba laurivora, as is far from impossible or even improbable. Dr. Carl Bolle does not,
however, appear to have met with the present species, as he remarks (J. f. O. 1857, p. 328) that
Columba laurivora varies considerably, and that, curiously enough, Vernon Harcourt says even
that the Madeiran bird has silver markings on the neck. Messrs. Webb and Berthelot, though
they figure the present species as the male of Columba laurivora, appear to have met with true
C. laurivora rather than with the present species ; and hence I have deemed it advisable to follow

34

Mr. Godman in retaining the name given by Heineken for the present or the Madeiran species,
and that of laurivora for the species inhabiting the other islands, and which has the terminal
portion of the tail white. But little appears to be known respecting the present species, chiefly
owing to the fact that previous authors have overlooked it and considered it identical with
Columba laurivora ; and I have consequently no data respecting its habits, except the notes pub-
lished by Mr. Godman, who writes (Ibis, 1872, p. 216) as follows: — "Columba trocaz frequents
the high laurel forests of Madeira, where it breeds, only coming down occasionally to feed in the
cultivated lands. It is very shy, and not easily got at, even by the natives, who are acquainted
with its habits. I was out after them for two or three days without getting a shot, though I saw
several. The only plan is to go either early in the morning or late at night and sit under
the trees (Oreodaphne fastens) which they frequent, and take the chance of their settling above
your head without observing you. Even then they are not easily killed, as the foliage is so
thick, and the trees so high, as well as being usually placed on such a steep slope on the
mountain-side that, when shot, they sometimes fall more than 100 yards below you, smashing
themselves to pieces in the fall ; hence it is not easy to get good specimens for one's collection.
I, however, finally procured eleven fair skins. They feed on the fruit of the bay and till trees,
for which they search among the dead leaves upon the ground. The flesh has a strong flavour,
in consequence of the aromatic nature of the food." Mr. Godman (I. c.) enters fully into the
question of the synonymy of the present species and its allies, Columba laurivora and C. bollii ;
and it may be well to give a short recapitulation of what he says, the more so as after going
carefully into the question I fully agree with the views he adopts. It appears that there can be
no doubt that the name of trocaz is the correct one for the present species, as Dr. Heineken
(I. c.) describes it from the island of Madeira. Messrs. Webb and Berthelot, however, confuse
the Pigeon of the western group of the Canaries and that of Madeira under the name of Columba
laurivora, which name was intended to supplant the less classical one of C. trocaz. These
gentlemen figure, as the male, on the upper part of their plate, Columba trocaz of Heineken ; and
on the lower part of the plate is what they call the female, but which is the Pigeon of the
western group ; and as the Canaries are the first mentioned of the localities cited by Webb and
Berthelot, and this latter bird appears to be the Pigeon met with by them, I quite agree with
Mr. Godman that the name C. laurivora given by these gentlemen should be retained for it.
Respecting the synonymy subsequent to the publication of Webb and Berthelot's work, Mr.
Godman writes as follows : — " Bonaparte, in his ' Conspectus Avium,' ii. p. 45, considers that
both Heineken's bird and that of Webb and Berthelot belong to one species, which he calls
Trocaza trocaz, to which the locality ' Ins. Madeira' is assigned, the mention of the Canaries by
Webb and Berthelot being overlooked." This view, however, is altered in the ' Comptes Eendus,'
xliii. (1856) pp. 837, 948, where Prince Bonaparte justly considers that the birds figured in the
plate of the ' Ornithologie Canarienne' belong to two species. He applies the name Trocaza
bouvryi to the upper figure, retaining that of laurivora for the lower. The former name must
therefore be placed as a synonym of C. trocaz. Both the species are figured in the ' Iconographie
des Pigeons,' tt. 69, 70, C. laurivora being also figured by Knip, t. 43.

Dr. Bolle, in his first paper (J. f. O. 1855, p. 171), appears to have followed previous authors
in confusing the Canarian with the Madeiran bird. He obtained no specimens, though he says

35

he saw what he calls the smaller bird in Palma. In his second article (J. f. O. 1857 p. 324, et
seq.) two species are recognized. The first is called Columba laurivora ; and it would appear
that this name is applied to Webb and Berthelot's bird, as now restricted to the so-called female
of those authors. The other is called, with doubt, C. bouvryi, Bp. But C. bouvryi, Bp., is
C. trocaz, Hein., the Madeiran bird, the occurrence of which in the Canaries there is no evidence
to show. This second smaller species referred to by Dr. Bolle, Mr. Godman described as new
under the name of Columba bollii, as it appears to be fairly distinguishable from, though tolerably
closely allied to, C. laurivora.

I am indebted to Mr. Godman for two specimens, a pair, of this Pigeon, the male of which
I have figured and described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a,6,b,<2. Madeira, June 29th, 1871 (F. D. Godman) .

E Mus. Salvin and Godman.
a, cJ, b,2, c,2. Madeira, June 29th, 1871. d, 6 . Madeira, June 28th, 1871 (F. D. Godman).

36

37

Genus TURTUR.

Columba apud Brisson, Orn. i. p. 92 (1760).

Peristera apud Boie, Isis, 1828, p. 327.

Turtur, Selby, Naturalist's Library, v. p. 169 (1835).

Streptopelia apud Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 65 (1857).

The Turtle Doves inhabit the Paraparetic, Ethiopian, and Oriental Regions, five species being
found in the Western Palaearctic Region.

In habits the Turtle Doves differ but little from the Pigeons. They frequent forests,
gardens, and cultivated ground, some of the species being partial to the vicinity of inhabited
places. They walk with ease, and fly with great swiftness, threading the tangled forest-glades
with ease. They feed entirely on vegetable substances, and feed their young from their own
crop like the Pigeons. They are strictly monogamous, and are said to pair for life. Their nest,
which is a loose, slight platform of sticks, is placed on a tree or bush ; and in it they deposit two
elongated oval white eggs.

In the article on the common Turtle Dove I have called it Turtur vulgaris, Eyton ; but since
then I have ascertained that Selby's name, Turtur communis (Natural. Libr. v. p. 153, 1835), which
has precedence of Eyton's by one year, must stand, and Turtur vulgaris will have to sink into a
synonym. The generic title Turtur is undoubtedly the correct one, as Peristera of Boie, given
in 1828, was preoccupied by Swainson in 1827 for Peristera cinerea (Temm.) and its allies.

Turtur communis, the type of the genus, has the bill short, rather slender, compressed,
decurved, and sharp-edged, though obtuse at the tip ; at the base of the upper mandible are two
soft, tumid, bare substances placed over the nostrils ; nostrils linear, placed in the lower and fore
part of the nasal membrane ; wings long, full, rather pointed, the second quill longest, the first
being scarcely shorter ; tail moderately long, rounded ; legs short, rather strong ; the tarsus
anteriorly scutellate, and posteriorly scurfy ; toes moderately long ; claws moderately long,
arched, acute.

The American Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) has been included in the European
list on the faith of occurrences stated to have taken place in Great Britain ; but it is probable
that they were escaped birds, as this Pigeon is not unfrequently kept caged, and examples have
been turned out, as stated by Turnbull (B. of East Lothian, p. 41) — who remarks that several were
turned out in Berwickshire shortly before a specimen was shot by Lord Haddington at Mellerstain
in that county. Under these circumstances, and as this Pigeon is essentially an American species,
I have deemed it best to exclude it.

[ 59

38

462

TURTLE DOVE.

TURTUR VUUSARIS.

39

TUKTITR VITLGAEIS.

(TURTLE DOVE.)

Columba turtur, Briss. Orn. i. p. 92 (1760).

Columba turtur lusitanus, Briss. torn. cit. p. 98 (1760).

Columba turtur, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 284 (1766).

La Tourterelle, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 545, pi. 25 (1771).

Peristera turtur (L.), Boie, Isis, 1828, p. 327.

\Peristera tenera, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 494 (1831).

Turtur vulgaris, Eyton, Cat. Brit. Birds, p. 32 (1836).

Turtur auritus, G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, ii. p. 472 (1844-49, ex Ray).

Peristera rufidorsalis, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 257 (1855).

Peristera glaueonotus, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 257 (1855).

Turtur migratorius, Selby, fide Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 61 (1857).

Colombe tourterelle, French ; Eola, Portuguese ; Tortola, Spanish ; Tortora, Italian ; Gamiem,
Maltese ; Imam, Stitsia, Moorish ; Turteltaube, German ; Tortelduif, Dutch ; Turteldue,
Danish ; Turtuldugva, Fseroese ; Turteldue, Norwegian ; Turturdufva, Swedish ; Turturi
kyyhka, Finnish ; Krasny golubock, Russian.

Pigurm notabiles.

Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 28 ; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 140 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 29. fig. 1 ;
Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 152 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 70. figs. 3, 4 ; Roux, Orn.
Prov. pi. 246 ; Knip, Pig. i. pi. 42.

6 ad. pileo, nucha et collo postico cinereo-cseruleis : dorso fusco-cinereOj rufescente fuseo notato : uropygio
saturate cserulescenti-cinereo, centraliter fusco notato : supracaudalibus et rectricibus duabus eentralibus
brunneis, rectricibus reliquis nigro-fuscis vix schistaceo tinctis, albo terminatis, rectricis extimse utrinque
pogonio externo albo : remigibus saturate fuscis : tectricibus alarum majoribus et minoribus externis
pallide cinereo-cayuleis, tectricibus reliquis et scapularibus nigro-fuscis conspicue rufescente marginatis
capitis et colli lateribus casruleo-cinereis, colli laterum parte ima, fasciis quatuor nigris albo marginatis
notata. : gula, gutture et pectore rosaceo-vinaceis : abdomine et subcaudakbus albis, hypochondriis
cinereo lavatis : rostro brunneo : iride rufescenti-fusca, periophthalmis nudis rubris : pedibus rubris.

2 ad. mari similis sed vix minor et sordidior.

Juv. supra brunnescentior, nee capite, dorso et uropygio cajruleo-cinereis sed pallide fusco-cinereis : colli
lateribus haud nigro notatis : remigibus rufescente apicatis : gula, gutture et pectore sordide cervino-
cinereis, hoc pallide fusco-cervino lavato^ hypochondriis caeruleo- cinereo lavatis, corpore reliquo subtiis

albo.

Adult Male (Crimea) . Crown, nape, and hind neck bluish ash or dove-blue ; back dull brownish ash, marked
with dull reddish brown ; rump dove-blue, in the central portion slightly marked with warm brown ;

L

40

upper tail-coverts and the two central rectrices clove-brown, the remaining tail-feathers blackish brown
with a blue tinge, broadly tipped with white, the outer feather on each side having the outer web white ;
quills dark brown; larger wing-coverts and the external smaller coverts pale dove-blue, remaining
wing-coverts and scapulars blackish brown very broadly margined with bright rufous ; sides of the head
and neck ashy blue, becoming rosy vinous on the chin and throat ; on the lower part of the side of the
neck are four rows of black feathers tipped with white, forming four oblique bars ; lower throat and
breast rosy vinous, gradually fading into white towards the abdomen and under tail-coverts, which are
pure white, flanks slightly washed with ashy blue; beak brown; iris reddish brown; bare skin about the
eye red; legs coral-red. Total length about 11*5 inches, culmen 08, wing 7 - 0, tail 4 - 8, tarsus 0'85.

Adult Female. Resembles the male, but is a trifle less in size, and has the colours of the plumage less pure.

Young (Surrey, 19th August). Upper parts much browner than in the adult, the prevailing colour being
brownish ash, not ashy blue ; quills margined and tipped with rufous, and the rufous margins to the
coverts and scapulars broader and duller ; no dark feathers on the side of the neck ; throat and breast
dull pale ash, the lower throat washed with bufify brown; flanks bluish grey; rest of the underparts
white.

The Turtle Dove inhabits Europe generally, except in the colder portions, where it is only known
as a rare straggler ; it is a summer visitant throughout the continent, migrating southward into
Africa in the autumn. To the eastward it extends into Western Asia, and has been met with in
Yarkahd ; but in Siberia and Eastern Asia it is replaced by an allied species, the Siberian Turtle
Dove.

In Great Britain it is tolerably common in the southern counties, but becomes rarer towards
the north. Mr. A. G. More (Ibis, 1865, p. 142) defines its breeding-range as follows: — "Breeds
in South Devon occasionally, and in Somerset; regularly in Gloucester, and perhaps also in
Pembroke ; regularly in Herefordshire, Shropshire, and Stafford ; in the last two counties it is
rare ; in Derbyshire occasionally (Mr. J. J. Briggs) ; in Cheshire very rarely (Mr. J. F. Brockholes),
and in the south of Yorkshire (Mr. Reid). To the east and south of this line the Turtle Dove nests
in all the midland and southern counties, but is described as rare in Lincolnshire. Dr. Heysham
records that a young bird was once taken in Cumberland, where the species is very rarely seen ;
and the Rev. H. B. Tristram tells me that the nest has once been found as far north as Durham.
Yarrell says that the Turtle Dove is found in Lancashire, and is not uncommon in Cornwall ; but
I have not been able to obtain any evidence of its breeding in either of these counties. It seems
also safer to consider the locality of South AYales uncertain for the present."

In Scotland it has been met with in most of the counties, but can only be looked on as a
rare straggler; and Mr. Robert Gray writes (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 223) as follows: — "All the
specimens that have come under my own observation have been procured in autumn and spring.
It has occurred perhaps more numerously in Wigtownshire than elsewhere on the west side ; it
has likewise been met with in Ayrshire and Dumbartonshire ; and, in the Hebrides, specimens
have been shot in Islay and Skye." Messrs. Baikie and Heddle record the occurrence of one on
Holm, in Orkney, in 1850 ; and Mr. Saxby says it occurs in spring and autumn almost every
year in the gardens of Shetland, especially at Halligarth. In Ireland, Thompson says it is an
occasional, almost an annual, visitant to cultivated districts in some parts of the island.

41

Mr. Miiller records but two instances of its occurrence in the Faeroes — one in July 1857, and
the second on the island of Naalsoe on the 10 th October in the same year. It has been met
with in most parts of Scandinavia ; and Mr. Collett informs me that stragglers occur in almost
every portion of Norway, both in the north and in the south ; and in the districts bordering the
Christiania fiord it is occasionally met with even in flocks ; but most of the individuals obtained
have been in immature dress. Of late years it has been found tolerably often on the southern
and western coasts, even on the coasts of Nordland and Finmark. It is, he says, " highly impro-
bable that the numerous individuals which have occurred during a long succession of years in
various parts of the country were all of them stray birds ; but, on the other hand, it is hardly
possible to name the habitat of a colony whence the individuals in question can have spread."

Sundevall says it is curious that, although only of irregular occurrence in Southern Sweden,
it is met with more frequently, and almost regularly, in the north. The instances of its occur-
rence recorded by him (most of which are cited by Nilsson) are as follows — four in Skane, one
in Vestmanland in November, one at Hudiksvall in August 1840, one at Enontekis in 1837, and
two at Quickjoek in the autumn of 1841. A small flock is also said to have been seen at
Quickjock several years in succession; and one individual was taken in Nerike in September
1857. Several of those obtained were young in their first plumage.

Pastor Sommerfelt says that one was shot on Vatso some time ago, and that they have
since then been observed on Vardo. Besides the occurrence recorded by Professor Sundevall at
Enontekis, which place is in Finnish Lapland, it has, Professor Malmgren writes to me, been but
once met with in Finland, in Kyrkslatt parish, near Helsingfors, where a single example was
shot on the 3rd of October, 1868, and is now in the University collection at Helsingfors.
Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that it is common throughout Central Russia, especially in the Tula
Government, where it breeds. It occurs in the Moscow and Jaroslaf Governments; it also
breeds, nesting in fir trees, but is not common, and probably does not occur higher than in
60° N. lat. In the Keshtemsky and Kaslinsky Ural he found it breeding; but though
common on the western slope it was rare on the eastern side of the Ural chain. According to
Eversmann it is common in the Perm Government. Throughout North Germany it is generally
distributed, and common in summer ; and Kjasrbolling says that it is rare in Denmark, but
breeds near Flensborg, and is said to have nested at Endrupholm. Mr. Beck has shot it at
Thye ; and Mr. Dahl says that it breeds in Jutland, but does not say where. It arrives late in
April or early in May, and leaves in August or September. In Holland, Belgium, and France it
is very generally distributed, and common during the summer season ; and it is stated by Professor
Barboza du Bocage to be common in Portugal. It summers in Spain ; and is, Colonel Irby says,
extremely abundant in Andalucia, arriving chiefly in the first week in May, and leaving early in
October ; but he saw a single bird as late as the 31st October at Casa Vieja. Mr. A. von Homeyer
observed it in the Balearic isles, and says that it breeds in the wooded hills on the western portion
of Majorca, near Arta, the sandy Son Serra and Son Real, but he never met with it on Minorca.
He remarks that he never saw any earlier than the 6th of May.

In Switzerland and Savoy, Bailly says, it is not a common bird, and is only met with during
about four months and a half of the summer. It nests chiefly on the southern slopes of the hills
bordering the plains ; and a few pairs are to be met with every year on the bush-covered banks

42

of the Rhone, in the vicinity of Pont-Beauvoisin, Motte-Servolex, Bourget, Aix-les-Bains, &c.
Salvadori states that it abounds in Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia during the seasons of passage, and
many remain there to breed. Mr. C. A. Wright says (Ibis, 1864, p. 137) that large flocks visit
Malta in May and again in September, but at the latter season they are not so numerous as
during the spring migration. Lord Lilford records it as breeding in Corfu and Epirus, arriving
in April and leaving late in August ; and Dr. Kriiper says that it is very common in Greece on
passage, but only a few remain to breed. It also arrives there about the middle of April, and
returns again in August. It occurs throughout South Germany in summer ; and in Styria, as
I was informed by the late Mr. E. Seidensacher, it is the commonest of the Pigeons, arriving
about the middle of April, remaining to breed, and leaving again late in August or early in
September, though stragglers remain as late as October. Dr. A. Fritsch remarks on its abun-
dance in Bohemia ; and it is found commonly in the countries bordering the Danube, being
numerous round Constantinople in summer. Throughout Southern Russia it is extremely
common, and, according to Mr. Goebel, especially so in the Uman district, where, in the
autumn, it forms enormous flocks together with the Stock-Dove. In Asia Minor it is common
on passage ; but it seems that but few remain there during the breeding-season — though in
Palestine it is numerous in summer, but never remains during the winter.

Von Heuglin says that it visits North-east Africa regularly in spring and autumn, and he
met with it as far south as 10° N. lat. On the islands and in the cliffs in the Dahlak archipelago
it was not rare, and he observed it at the Tana lake, in Abyssinia, in the middle of May. Brehm
states that it breeds in Egypt ; Von Heuglin calls this statement in question, and says that it
must be a mistake ; but Captain Shelley confirms what Brehm says, and writes (B. of Egypt,
p. 214) that it " frequently breeds in the country." It is, however, a summer visitant in North-
west Africa, and is stated by Loche to be very abundant in Algeria. Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt-Drake
writes (Ibis, 1869, p. 153) that it is very common on the west coast of Morocco, and on his
return to Tangier in May he found it there as a summer visitant ; and M. Favier states {fide
Colonel Irby) that it " is a summer resident near Tangier, vast numbers arriving to cross the
Straits in flocks during April and May, returning in September and October, then to retire south
for the winter." Vernon Harcourt says that the present species is occasionally found in Madeira ;
and Dr. Carl Bolle writes (J. f. O. 1857, p. 331) that it is extremely common in Canaria, and
tolerably so in Teneriffe, but rarer in Gomera, and found in all the islands ; and he adds that he
has convinced himself that the species found there is without doubt Turtur vulgaris.

To the eastward the present species has been met with as far as Yarkand ; but I do not find
any record of its occurrence in India, and in Siberia and Eastern Asia it is replaced by the
Siberian Turtle Dove, a tolerably closely allied species. Mr. Blanford informs me that it is
common throughout Persia. He never saw it in Baluchistan ; but he met with it immediately
after entering Narmashir, and thence to the north it was found wherever there were trees. It
was common in the Elburz Mountains. Dr. Henderson says (Lahore to Yarkand, p. 278) that a
single specimen of the European Turtle Dove was obtained at Oi Tograk, in Yarkand, on the
18th August, where it was the only species of Dove observed.

Throughout the whole of Europe the Turtle Dove is a strict migrant ; and being a rather
tender bird and very susceptible as regards cold, it leaves early in the autumn, and returns rather

43

late in the spring. It appears to travel by clay when migrating, and arrives in the spring singly ;
but in the autumn it usually travels in small, or occasionally in larger, flocks. It frequents
wooded districts, and is found in the woods on the plains as well as in the hills, but does not
appear to go up to any great altitude in the mountains, and is found both in non-evergreen
woods and in those which are composed solely of conifer trees, but more especially in the latter ;
for it feeds almost in preference on the seeds of these trees, and when there is an unusually rich
crop the Turtle Dove is more numerous than usual in the fir-woods.

It is an exceedingly peaceful, timid bird, living in amity with others of its own species, and
is very aptly regarded as an emblem of peace. It frequents the large trees, and is often seen
on the larger branches, along which it frequently walks ; but when perched quietly at rest it
frequently sits on the topmost boughs. On the ground it walks with ease, the body being
carried in an almost horizontal position, the neck being rather drawn inwards; but when any
thing suddenly attracts its attention it will stretch its neck somewhat and jerk its head whilst
peering round in different directions.

It flies with great swiftness and ease, usually direct ; but it turns and twists amongst the
trees with the greatest ease, and can usually avoid even the swifter birds of prey when amongst
the trees in its usual forest-haunts. Though partial to the society of others of its own species, it
is less seldom seen in such large flocks as other wild Pigeons ; but sometimes it collects in tolerably
numerous companies during the autumnal migration. Its note is a soft, somewhat monotonous
coo, which is uttered by the male as he is sitting on an elevated perch, usually alone, and with
which he calls his mate. When paired they are greatly attached to each other ; and should one
be destroyed, its mate clearly shows its sorrow by earnestly searching after the lost one ; but
that, as is often held to be the case, the survivor pines and dies, is scarcely correct, though it
appears quite true that it earnestly mourns for its mate. Soon after its arrival it pairs and
commences nidification, the place selected being in a wood or grove near clear water, and where
the underbrush is somewhat dense. The nest is merely a slight platform of twigs, not so large
as a man's hand, placed on the bough of a tree or on a bush, sometimes not many feet above the
ground, and at others at a considerable altitude. About the middle of May the eggs, two in
number, are deposited. They are pure white in colour, rather glossy in texture, oval in shape,
but rather stout, tapering equally towards each end. Both male and female incubate, and take
part in the rearing of the young, which remain in the nest until quite able to fly.

The food of the Turtle Dove consists of seeds of various sorts and grain ; and it is extremely
partial to the seed of conifers. It visits the fields and eats a considerable quantity of grain of
almost all sorts, and also feeds on the seeds of many species of weeds and grass. Naumann says
that it is partial to the seeds of Astragalus arenarius, Vicia angustifolia, Ervum hirsutum,
E. tetraspermum, Polygonum convolvulus, P. aviculare, P. dumetorum, and of many sorts of grass,
especially of the Panicum group. It invariably resorts to fresh, and generally to running water
to drink, and always inhabits localities where good fresh water is to be had. It alights at a short
distance from the water when going to drink, and then walks to the edge, always selecting a
sandy place, and not where the grass extends to the edge of the water.

The specimen figured is an adult male from the Crimea. I have not deemed it necessary to
figure the female or immature bird.

44

6
In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.
a,(j,b,2- Kent, c, 8 ■ Crimea (Whitely). d. Egypt, April 1871 (G.E. Shelley). e,pull. Belgium (Dubois) .

E Mus. Salvin and Godman.
a,juv. Surrey, August 19th, 1870 (F. D. Godman).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, b, c, 2 , d, 8 . Valencia, Spain, April, e, 2 . Tangier, April ( Olcese) .

E Mus. C. A. Wright.
a, b, 2 . Malta, April 17th, 1869 (C. A. TV.).

463

J.GJCeuleina^ Kth.

twhart :

ASIATIC TURTLEDOVE.

TURTUR ORIENTALIS.

45

TURTUK OKIENTALIS.

(ASIATIC TURTLEDOVE.)

La Tourterelle brune de la Chine, Sonn. Voy. Ind. Orient, ii. p. 177(1782).

Columba orientals, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 606 (1790, ex Sonn.).

Columba ruficola, Pall. Zoogr. Eosso-As. i. p. 566 (1811).

Columba pulchrata, Hodgs. in Gray's Zool. Misc. p. 85 (1831).

Columba meena, Sykes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1832, p. 149.

Columba agricola, Tickell, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. ii. p. 581 (1833).

Columba gelastis, Temm. Nouv. Pec. PL Col. pi. 550 (1838).

Columba ferrago, Eversm. Add. ad Zoogr. Eosso-As. iii. p. 17(1842).

Turtur meena (Sykes), Gray, Gen. of B. ii. p. 472 (1844).

Columba (Turtur) gelastes, Temm. & Schl. Fauna Japonica, p. 100, pi. 60 b (1854).

Turtur rupicola (Pall.), Bp. Coup d'ceil sur l'ordre des Pig. p. 29 (1855).

Columba vitticollis major, Temm. fide Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 60 (1857).

Columba vitticollis minor, Temm. fide Bp. ut supra (1857).

Turtur orientalis (Lath.), Swinhoe, Ibis, 1860, p. 63.

Turtur vitticollis (Temm.), A. O. Hume in Henderson's 'Lahore to Yarkand,' p. 274 (1873).

Figures notabiles.
Sonnerat, I. c. ; Temm. PI. Col. 550 ; Temm. & Schl. Fauna Japonica, pi. 60 b; Knip, Pig.
ii. pi. 27; Sv. Jag. Nya Tidsk. v. pi. to p. 250.

Ad. T. vulgari similis sed major et saturatius eoloratus : fronte cana, occipite fusco-plunibeo, gula albida. :
corpore supra saturate fusco-cinereo : tectricibus alarum et scapularibus rufescenti marginatis : uropygio
saturate schistaceo : rectricibus centralibus brunnescentibus, reliquis apice cano-cinereis, extima utrinque
pogonio externo etiam albo-cano : jugulo pectoreque fusco-rufescentibus, abdomine centrali rosaeeo-
vinaceo, subcaudalibus cano-einereis : collo utrinque plumis nigris, apice lunulis caesio-cserulescentibus :
rostro purpurascente : pedibus rubris : iride rubra.

Adult Male (Japan). Resembles Turtur vulgaris, but is larger and much darker in coloration ; the forehead
is dark ashy blue ; but the rest of the head, sides of the neck, and upper parts are ashy brown, and the
margins to the wing-coverts and scapulars are richer and deeper rufous ; rump deep slate-blue ; tail as
in Turtur vulgaris, but the white portion is replaced by pale ashy grey ; chin yellowish white ; rest of
the underparts brownish vinous, becoming rosy vinous on the centre of the abdomen; the black
feathers on the sides of the neck are tipped with pale ashy blue instead of white; the under tail-coverts
are ashy grey; bill purplish; iris red; legs coral-red. Total length about 13 inches, culmen 0-8,
gape - 95, wing 7 - 5, tail 5 - 7, tarsus 1*1.

This eastern representative of our common Turtledove inhabits Asia as far east as Japan, and is
only known in Europe as an exceedingly rare straggler. According to Professor Easch two

2 s

46

examples, said to belong to the present species, obtained in East Finmark in 1850, came into
Schrader's hands : with this exception, there are only two instances of its having been obtained
within the limits of the Western Palsearctic Eegion; and in both instances the specimens were
in immature dress. The first of these birds was found in December 1842, amongst a sledge-
load of game from Herjeadale, in Northern Sweden; and the second was caught alive a little to
the westward of Pitea in October 1850, and sent to the Museum at Stockholm in August 1851.
Here it was kept alive by Mr. Meves, the curator, until 1853, when, having attained its full
plumage, it was killed and stuffed, and is now in the Museum.

It has been suggested that the second specimen on record from Sweden must have been one
which was brought in some vessel from Japan or China and let loose; but this seems to be
improbable. Dr. Sundstrom, writing to me on the subject, says, " I have used every endeavour
to gather information so as to throw light on the occurrence of this bird at Pitea; and Mr. J. P.
Pettersson, who is now cashier to the ' Stockholm's Dagblad,' to whom I applied, furnished me
with data from which I wrote an article in the ' Svenska Jagarforbundets Nya Tidskrift ' in 1869,
in which I endeavoured to show as nearly as possible how matters stand with regard to this bird.
Mr. Pettersson placed at my disposal a letter from Professor Sundevall, dated 9th September,
1851, and the following statement in writing, viz. : — ' In October 1850 the bird in question was
caught at a peasant's farm in Svensby, about a mile and a half (Swedish) west of Pitea. I do not
recollect the mode of capture ; but one day in that month a little girl brought the bird to me at
Prins Carl's wharf in Pitea. It was in a cage ; and the child told me that her parents had sent
her with it, thinking that it must be one of my tame Pigeons, as I kept forty or fifty of these
tame Pigeons. As I felt sure that the bird was something rare, I kept it, and wrote to Professor
Sundevall about it, promising to send it to the Academy of Sciences the following summer, but was
not able to fulfil my promise before the following August. On receipt of it Professor Sundevall
wrote to say that it was a Chinese or Japanese bird, &c. &c. It certainly could not have been
brought to the latitude of Pitea (65° 19' 13" N. lat.) by any vessel from China or Japan, because
I am sure that no vessel from the China seas has ever come to any harbour above Stockholm.
Besides, when I received the bird it was certainly a wild one, and showed no signs of having been
kept in a cage ; and it remained very shy during the whole time I had it in my possession. Had
the bird been in a cage during so long a journey as from China or Japan, it would probably not
have been the only bird of the species on board, and it would also have been more tame, and
would have shown signs of captivity ; but the whole time I kept it it remained wild, and would
not agree with other Pigeons I kept in confinement.' This statement was signed by Mr. Pettersson
at Stockholm, under date 15th October, 1869. From this it will be seen that the bird was found
far north in our country, and not near any of the harbours where vessels arrive from China or
Japan. On the other hand, it was not far north of the locality whence the specimen purchased
in the flesh at Stockholm in 1842 came, Jemtland or Herjeadale (the former according to letter,
and the latter according to information in print from Professor Sundevall). This second specimen
was caught in a wooded locality west of Pitea, where there were no other Pigeons or Doves, either
tame or wild ; and whilst Mr. Pettersson had it in his possession he could not get it to consort
with any other Pigeons, though he tried to get it to do so, hoping that it would pair with one
of them."

47

I myself feel convinced that the bird was not an escaped one from a vessel, for the following
reasons, viz. : — So far as I can ascertain, no vessel trading direct from China or Japan has ever
discharged at a Swedish port north of Stockholm, or perhaps Gene ; and it is scarcely probable
that a young bird, especially after having been long caged (for it must necessarily have been
caged when very young), could have flown from either of these ports to Pitea. Besides, a
vessel would be several months on the voyage ; and the bird must therefore, if it had come that
way, have been caged almost as soon as it left the nest. When caught it was in its first
autumn's plumage ; this, again, is a proof that, had it been brought caged from Eastern Asia,
it could not have known what freedom was, and would not have been so wild as it was when in
Mr. Pettersson's possession. Professor Sundevall, writing respecting this bird, says (Ofv. K. Vet.
Ak. Forh. 1851, p. 183), " It is now over a year old, and has been in moult the entire month
(September), and will soon have its full plumage. The specimen from Herjeadale was certainly a
bird of the year in its first autumnal moult ; and one may with safety suggest that it was hatched
nearer than Eastern Asia, perhaps in the very province where it was obtained, or in Lapland ;
and it is not improbable that a pair had straggled as far west as to Scandinavia, and remained to
breed." It must also be recollected that the specimen caught at Pitea was a bird of the year, as
remarked by Professor Sundevall, in precisely similar plumage to that from Jemtland ; and this
fact makes it probable that it could not have straggled from Eastern Asia, but must have been
hatched somewhere nearer the place where it was caught.

It is by no means improbable that it has been obtained elsewhere in North-east Europe, and
either overlooked or mistaken for the common Turtledove. In Asia it ranges throughout Eastern
Siberia, and is found throughout India, and as far south as Malacca. Von Middendorff states
that he found it common in South-east Siberia, from the bare summits of the Stanowoi Mountains
down to Udskoj-Ostrog. He first observed it on the 22nd May; and at the end of August it was
still to be seen on the south side of the sea of Ochotsk. Von Schrenck found it common on the
Amoor and the Ussuri, and adds that he was told by the natives that it occurs on Saghalien.
The first arrived at the Nikolaieffsk post early in April 1855; and on the 12th September he
shot one which was just moulting out of its nestling-plumage. Dr. Eadde remarks that it
arrives earlier on the Central Amoor than at the mouth of that river, and he observed it as early
as the 11th October (O.S.) in the Bureja Mountains. Though it arrives so early, it leaves late ;
for he observed a few on the 25th September on the islands of the Onon, near the old fortress
of Tschindantsk, though the main body leaves the Central Amoor about the 10th September.

In India there are two forms of the present species ; but, from the series I have examined, I
find the variation between the two so considerable that I cannot treat them as distinct species.
One of these forms, the Turtur rupicola of many Indian authors, is the dark form with grey
under tail-coverts ; and the extreme of the other form, which, judging from Sykes's description, is
the Turtur meena of this author, has the uuderparts paler than in Japanese and Chinese birds,
and the under tail-coverts and terminal portion of the tail nearly pure white. But both the light
and dark forms of the present species can at once be distinguished from our Turtledove by having
the tips to the black feathers on the sides of the neck greyish blue, and not white. Dr. Jerdon,
writing (B. of India, ii. p. 477) about the present species, says that it "is a regular winter
visitant, retiring to the hills to breed. It is more rare in the south of India than in Central or

2s2

48

Northern India ; and I did not observe it in the forests of Malabar, though observed by Elliot in
Dharwar, and by Sykes in the, northern part of the Ghats ; but I have procured it in bamboo
jungles on the Eastern Ghats, in Goomsoor, in Central India, and also in Eastern Bengal, the
Khasia hills, and Cachar." According to Blyth in his commentary on Dr. Jerdon's ' Birds of
India' (Ibis, 1867, pp. 149, 150), "the Himalayan bird resembles T. auritus, except in being
much larger ; and it is doubtless the T. auritus from the Alpine Punjab of Mr. Vigne's list
(P. Z. S. 1841, p. 6). The more eastern form (Columba gelastes, Temm. Faun. Japon. Aves,
tab. lx. b) has the lower tail-coverts greyer. In T. meena the latter are dark ash-colour. This
last species I obtained in the interior of Martaban, near the Shan frontier. T. rupicola must
be the species (no. 155) described by Dr. Adams (P. Z. S. 1859, p. 187) as 'common in certain
localities on the Cashmere ranges and Ladakh ; plentiful likewise to the east towards Simla.
Frequents grassy mountain-sides or valleys in the lesser ranges.' It is certainly common near
Simla ; and it is the T. orientalis of Capt. T. Hutton, who states that it is ' a mere summer
visitant at Mussoorie, where it arrives early in April, when every wood resounds with its deep-
toned cooing. It is not found lower than 6000 feet with us, and departs in October ' (J. A. S. B.
xvii. pt. 2, p. 13)." But from the above it would seem that the Turtur meena alluded to by
Blyth is the dark eastern form, and not the bird described by Sykes. Dr. Leith Adams states
that it occurs in cultivated districts in Cashmere and Ladak ; and Dr. Henderson (I. c.) met with
it in considerable numbers in the Sind valley, Kashmir. Mr. A. O. Hume (I. c.) enters very fully
into the question of the differences between the two forms of the present species ; and I may refer
to his article on the subject. To the southward the present species has been found as far as
Ceylon, where, Mr. Layard states, he obtained one in immature dress. Mr. Blyth records it from
Arrakan and Tenasserim, in Burmah, and Mr. Wardlaw-Ramsay from Tonghoo, Karen-nee at
4000 feet ; and, according to Mr. Blyth, it is found down to Malacca. In China, Mr. Swinhoe
states, it is found in South China, Formosa, and Hainan in winter. In Japan the present species
appears to be tolerably common. Commodore Perry obtained several at Hakodadi, where
Mr. Whitely also met with it ; Captain Blakiston speaks of it as being common enough in the
summer and autumn ; and I have received it from Yokohama.

In habits the present species is said not to differ from the common Turtledove ; and its nest
and eggs closely resemble those of that species. I am indebted to Mr. W. E. Brooks, C.E., for an
egg of this bird, which resembles eggs of the European Turtledove, but is slightly larger.

The specimen figured is an adult male from Japan, in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, $ ad. Yokohama, Japan, b, 6 . Yokohama, February 14th, 1870 (Captain Conrad) . c. India (Burton).

E Mus. Brit. Beg.

a, b, c, ad., d,juv. Nepal (Hodgson), e, c?. China (Gould).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.

a. N.W. Himalayas, b. India, c. Maunbhoom, India (Beavan).

464

JGKeule

li-th.

Hanhart mip

I. ISABELLINE TURTLE-DOVE.

TURTUR ISABELLINUS.

2. COLLARED TURTLE-DOVE.

TURTUR RISORIUS.

49

TITRTUK ISABELLINUS.

(ISABELLINE TURTLE DOVE.)

Turtur isabellinus, Bp. Compt. Eend. xliii. p. 942 (1856).
Turtur sharpii, Shelley, Ibis, 1870, p. 447.

Turtur turtur oides, Pr. Wiirtt. Icon, inecl. t. 67, fide Heugl. Orn. N.O.-Afr. Add. p. clxx
(1871).

Figurce notabiles.

Bp. Icon. Pig. pi. 102; Shelley, B. of Egypt, pi. x. fig. 2.

Ad. Turturi vulgari similis, sed minor : pileo, capitis lateribus et corpore supra rufescenti-fulvidis, pileo et nucha,
pallidioribus et ochraceo tinctis : tectricibus alarum conspicue ferrugineo-fulvido marginatis : uropygio
et supracaudalibus fuscis, falvido marginatis : cauda sicut in Turture vulgari picturata, sed supra saturate
fusca, nee scbistaceo tincta : mento et gula fusco-ochraceis, gutture et pectore saturate aeneo-rosaceis,
abdomine imo et subcaudalibus albis : rostro, iride et pedibus sicut in T. vulgari coloratis.

Adult Male (Egypt, April) . Differs from Turtur vulgaris in being smaller, in having the crown, sides of the
head, hind neck, and upper parts generally tawny reddish brown, on the head paler and ochreous in
in tinge ; wing-coverts broadly margined with warm rufescent ochreous brown ; rump and upper tail-
coverts dark brown, broadly margined with tawny brown; tail as in Turtur vulgaris, but the upper
surface is dark brown, without any tinge of slate; chin and upper throat pale brownish ochreous,
gradually fading into deep coppery pink, which again fades into white on the lower abdomen and under
tail-coverts ; soft parts as in Turtur vulgaris. Total length about 11 inches, culmen - 7, wing 60,
tail 4 - 3, tarsus 08.

This, a desert form of the common Turtle Dove (from which, however, it is clearly specifically
distinct), is only, so far as is yet known, found in North-east Africa, where it is found from near
Cairo southward throughout Egypt and Nubia.

Not only earlier explorers in North-east Africa, but many of those who have recently worked
at the ornithology of that portion of the globe have confused the present species with Turtur
vulgaris; and there is consequently but little reliable information on record respecting it.
Bonaparte, who first recognized its distinctness from Turtur vulgaris, named it (I. c.) from a
specimen in the Berlin Museum received from Egypt, and gives its habitat as " ex insulis
iEgypti superioris," without any further details. Captain Shelley, who obtained it in Egypt
on his journey there for collecting, failed to identify it with Bonaparte's Turtur isabellinus,
and renamed it (I. c.) Turtur sharpii; but he has since convinced himself that his name will not
stand. He says (B. of Egypt, p. 215) : — " It arrives in the beginning of February, and by the
end of the month becomes plentiful throughout Egypt and Nubia, and may be found breeding
in great numbers towards the latter end of March, some three weeks before Turtur auritus

arrives in the country This Dove I regard as a desert form of Turtur auritus, and in some

respects as intermediate between that bird and Turtur senegalensis. It appears never to breed

50

on the ground as the latter bird often does, but resembles it in the habit of frequenting burial-
grounds and sandy districts, frequently at some distance from trees, which is seldom the case with
Tnrtur auritus. Its egg is intermediate in size, and, from the one specimen I brought home,
appears to be of a less pure white than those of the other two species. In the beginning of
April it so far surpassed in numbers its congener, Turtur senegalensis, that sixty out of sixty-two
specimens which I killed on an island of the First Cataract were of this species."

Von Heuglin, who only recognizes it as a species in the addenda and corrigenda of his work,
gives no details respecting its range and habits beyond what he takes from Captain Shelley's
work ; but Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., in his notes on the ornithology of Egypt (Ramb. Nat. p. 179),
has: — "Captain Shelley says that this bird arrives in the beginning of February; but though a
sharp look-out was kept by us, we did not get any before the 26th of March, when five were shot
on Elephantine Island. For the next ten days it was very common, and I saw some large flocks
evidently migrating. Then it grew scarcer, and I began to think that we had reached its
northern limits; but I found it again at the Fayoom. Here it probably breeds among the
tamarisk-bushes, though I often saw it out on the lake. The specimens we shot at the Fayoom
were not so sandy-coloured, nor nearly so bright as those we killed before. One shot on the
27th of March contained a perfect egg ready for exclusion."

It seems that the present species penetrates tolerably far south in the winter season ; but I
am unable to find how far into the interior of Africa its range extends. It is not included by
Messrs. Finsch and Hartlaub in their work on the ornithology of East Africa, and does not
appear, therefore, to have been met with within their limits. Beyond what information is given
above I find nothing on record respecting the habits of this little-known species.

The specimen figured is an adult bird obtained by Captain Shelley in Egypt.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, j ad. Egypt, April 1871 (G. E. Shelley).

E Mus. G. E. Shelley,
a, d ad. Egypt, April 1871, type of T. sharpii (G. E. S.).

51

TURTUK KISOEIUS.

(COLLARED TURTLE DOVE.)

Cohimba turtur torquatus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 95 (1760).

Colwnba risoria, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 285 (1766).

La Tourterelle a collier, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 550, pi. xxvi. (1771).

Turtur douraca, Hodgs. in Gray's Zool. Misc. p. 85 (1844).

Turtur risorius (L.), Layard, Ann. Nat. Hist. xiv. p. 59 (1854).

Peristera risoria (L.), C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 257 (1855, partim).

Streptopelia risoria (L.), Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 65 (1857).

Turtur intercedens, Finsch & Hartl. Yog. Ost-Afr. p. 545 (1870, nee Brehm).

Turtur stoliczkce, Hume, Stray Feathers, ii. p. 519 (1874).

Ad. capite et collo canescenti-vinaceis, pileo magis cano lavato, fronte albicante : fascia colli postici nigra, albo
marginata : corpore et alis supra pallide et obsolete fuscis, uropygii lateribus scbistaceo-canis : remigi-
bus primariis nigro-fuscis, secundariis schistaceo-canis, versus apicem fusco lavatis : marginibus alarum
cseruleo-canis : rectricibus centralibus dorso concoloribus, reliquis ad basin caeruleo-canis, versus apicem
pallide canis et albo terminatis : pectore vinaceo, abdomine imo et subcaudalibus scbistaceo-canis,
hypocbondriis cinereo-cseruleo lavatis : subalaribus albis : cauda subtiis ad basin nigra, et in parte
apicali alba : rostro nigricante : pedibus saturate rosaceo-rubris : iride coccinea.

Juv. ubique sordidior, minus vinaceo et magis cinereo-fusco coloratus, fascia collari nulla.

Adult Male (Palestine). Head, neck, and breast ligbt greyisb vinous, tbe crown more tinged with blue-
grey ; back, scapulars, inner wing-coverts, inner secondaries, and rump dusty brown, becoming rich
dove-blue on tbe sides of the rump; primaries blackish brown, becoming ashy blue at the base;
secondaries dark dove-blue, washed with brown at the tip; edge of the wing, including the outer
wing-coverts, dove-blue ; central tail-feathers coloured like the back, the rest dark ashy blue at the
base, then light blue-grey, fading to white towards the tip ; a tolerably broad black collar margined
with white passes from the hind neck half round ; underparts pale vinous, becoming deep dove-blue on
the lower abdomen and under tail-coverts, these last being uniform in colour ; flanks washed with blue-
grey ; under wing-coverts white, tinged with dove-blue towards the edge of the wing; under surface of
the tail blackish on the basal and white on the terminal portion ; bill black ; feet dark pinkish red ;
orbital skin whitish; iris crimson. Total length about 12'5 inches, culmen 0'8, wing 7"15, tail 5*7,
tarsus 095.

Adult Female (Palestine) . Undistinguishable from the male.

Young Male (Haskeuy, Turkey). Differs from the adult in being much duller in colour, the vinous colora-
tion being more ashy brown in tinge ; the light ending to the tail is smaller ; and there is only an
indication of the collar on the hind neck.

This species, which probably is the parent stock of the domestic Turtle Dove, inhabits Southern
Asia, Japan, China, India, &c, ranging westward into Palestine, Asia Minor, and Turkey in

u2

52

Europe, being replaced in North Africa by a nearly allied tbough fairly separable form, the
Turtur decipiens, Finsch & Hartl.

In Turkey, the only portion of Europe proper where it is found, it is very common in some
parts. Dr. Finsch met with it in the villages in Bulgaria ; and in Constantinople it is found not
uncommonly. Mr. E. Cavendish Taylor states (Ibis, 1864, p. 410) that he met with a few pairs
among the cypress trees in the seraglio-gardens in Stamboul ; and Messrs. Elwes and Buckley
say (Ibis, 1870, p. 201) that it "inhabits most of the towns and villages in the south of Turkey,
and remains all the winter. In Constantinople it is especially numerous, and also in some of tbe
Macedonian villages which are interspersed with trees and gardens. It appears to love the
neighbourhood of dwellings, and may be seen sitting, like a Sparrow, on the roofs of the houses,
where it is never molested by the Turks. It breeds in the cypresses, which almost universally
adorn a Turkish graveyard, and in the immense old plane trees in the bazaars." It is said to be
common throughout Asia Minor, there, as in Turkey, frequenting inhabited places ; and Mr. E. C.
Taylor remarks (I. c.) that he met with it in considerable numbers in the Turkish graveyards near
Smyrna. In Palestine, Canon Tristram writes (1868, p. 211), it is " a permanent resident round
the Dead Sea, but only in small numbers in winter, when it is shy and wary. In spring its
numbers are largely increased, and it spreads itself through the greater part of the country, up
to Mount Tabor, and breeds everywhere in trees and bushes, generally living in small flocks of
eight or twelve together.

It appears to be of but rare occurrence in Persia, where, Mr. Blanford states, he never
observed it ; but Major St. John saw a pair in captivity at Isfahan, which, he was told, had been
taken from a nest in a garden near there. In Baluchistan, however, Mr. Blanford found it not
rare ; and Mr. A. O. Hume says that it is very common throughout Sindh. According to
Dr. Jerdon (B. of Ind. ii. p. 482) the present species is " generally diffused throughout India,
frequenting hedges and trees in the neighbourhood of cultivation, and also low bush or reed-
jungle. It is found in Ceylon, but is rare in Malabar, and generally in forest-country ; and it
appears not to occur in Arrakan, nor in the countries to the east of the Bay of Bengal. Layard
notices its partiality for Euphorbia bushes, in which, he says, it generally builds its nest. Blyth
states that it inclines to be more gregarious than our other Doves, but less so than Turtur meena.
Like the other Doves, it breeds in the plains at all seasons, but also, it appears, ascends the hills
near Mussooree to breed." To this I may add that Captain Feilden has obtained it in Upper
Pegu, and it occurs as far east as Japan. It was also obtained on the Kashgar expedition ; and
the birds brought from there seem to be, as a rule, rather larger than those in the plains of
India. Mr. A. O. Hume wishes to make a distinct species of the Kashgar bird, and calls it (I. c.)
Turtur stoliczkce. I have not had an opportunity of examining a specimen from there; but,
judging from the series of specimens of Turtur risorius I have examined, and from Mr. Hume's
description, I cannot believe that he is justified in making a new species. The characters on
which he bases his species are larger size, a broader nuchal collar more broadly margined with
white, and a larger amount of white on the lateral tail-feathers — all of which I find very variable
in the specimens I have examined ; for they all differ, more or less, in size, in the breadth of the
nuchal collar, and in the amount of white on the tail. The size he gives of his specimen of
T stoliczkce is — wing 7*35, tail 6 - 2, against Dr. Jerdon's measurements of the Indian bird, of

wing 6*5, tail 5*5 ; and I find that specimens from India, Turkey, Palestine, and Japan vary in
size as follows — wing 6 - 4 to 7 - 2, tail 5 - to 5"7, which shows how little the difference in size can
be taken into consideration in making a new species.

I may here mention that Dr. Severtzoff includes it in his list of the birds of Turkestan with
a query, and he was unable to give me any definite information respecting it. It occurs, how-
ever, certainly in Japan and China, and also straggles to South-east Siberia ; for Dr. von Schrenck
mentions that Mr. Maximowicz obtained one on the 5th November, near the Mariinskischen Post,
close to 52° N. lat.

It is not included by Temminck and Schlegel in the ' Fauna Japonica ;' but it cannot be rare
in Japan, as there were several specimens in a collection I lately received from Yedo ; and in
China, Mr. Swinhoe writes (P. Z. S. 1871, p. 397), it is found frequenting the trees of villages
near the Great Wall, but not at Pekin itself.

In habits this Dove is said to resemble the Egyptian Turtle Dove, as also in its mode of
nidification. It makes a slight platform of sticks on a tree or bush, in Turkey selecting the
cypresses, and in Ceylon showing a partiality for the Euphorbia-bushes, and deposits two eggs,
pure white in colour, and rather elongated-oval in shape. I am indebted to Mr. Rhodes W.
Morgan for several eggs of this Dove, taken by him at Kurnoul, in Southern India, which
average in size about 1/^ by f^- inch.

This Dove is by no means particular as to the selection of any particular season of the year
for nidification ; and Mr. A. O. Hume says that he has taken eggs in every month from December
to August, and has no doubt that others have found them in the remaining quarter. The nest,
he writes (Nests and Eggs of Ind. B. p. 507), " is placed on any bush or tree — prickly and thorny
sites, such as are afforded by the Zizyphus, the wild date, babool, Euphorbia, &c, being often,
but by no means universally, selected. Generally the nest is within fifteen, not very rarely
within five feet of the ground ; but, again, I have found it thirty or forty feet up a large tree.
The nest is placed indifferently in a fork, in amongst numerous prongs, on a broad horizontal
bough — anywhere, in fact, where a secure and sufficiently wide basis can be found, and is usually
a mere platform, some six inches in diameter, composed of thin twigs and lined with grass-stems,
with a slight depression in the centre. Occasionally the nest is rather more saucer-like ; a few
roots or grass-stems are not unfrequently intermingled ; and I have seen nests composed wholly
of grass." According to Mr. A. Andersson it sometimes breeds on the ground; and he found, on
the 20th November, a nest, consisting of a few dry twigs and grass-stalks, placed on the bare
sand, and containing two eggs.

The note of this Dove is said to differ from that of the common caged Turtle Dove, and is
by Blyth stated to resemble the syllables kookoo-koo, kookoo-koo. Dr. Jerdon says that in con-
finement the two birds interbreed readily, and produce fertile offspring, which is intermediate in
size and coloration as well as in note.

The present species has by some authors been considered to be the bird referred to by Brehm
(Vogelfang, p. 258) as Peristera intercedens ; but this view I cannot for a moment indorse. Brehm,
as usual, gives no proper description of his bird ; and as he says that it inhabits East Africa, where
the present species is not found, he cannot refer to it.

I purposed giving to my readers a short review of the different African Turtle Doves allied

54

4

to the present species ; but my friend and former colleague, Mr. E. B. Sharpe, informs me that
he is now engaged in working out this group ; so I have left the matter in his hands and handed
over to him the specimens I had collected together for this purpose. I will merely say that the
African species Turtur decipiens, Hartl. & Finsch (Vog. Ost-Afr. p. 544), of which I have
examined the type, differs from the present species in having the under tail-coverts conspicuously
margined with white.

The specimen figured, on the same Plate with Turtur isabellinus, is an adult male from
Palestine in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

E Mm. H. E. Dresser.

a, <$ ad. Jericho, January 1864 (H. B. Tristram), b, ad., c,jun. Yedo, Japan (C. M'Vean).

E Mm. C. G. Danford.

a, J ad., b, $ jun. Haskeuy, Turkey, April 9th, 1875 (C. G. D.).

E Mm. Brit. Reg.

a, <3 . Baluchistan, March 29th, 1 872 ( W. T. Blanford) . b. India (Hodgson) . c, d. Nepal (Hodgson) . e, f, g.
Kamptee (Hinde). h. Punjab (Kearsey). i, <3 , k, ?. Ghor el Safieh, Palestine (H. B. Tristram).

E Mm. H. B. Tristram.

a, $ . Jericho, January 11th, 1864 (H. B. T.). b, 2 . Jericho, April 15th, 1864, shot off nest containing eggs
(H. B. T.).

E Mm. G. E. Shelley.

a, $. Jericho, January 13th, 1864 (H. B. Tristram).

465

Sa

M

r/torf

%

EGYPTIAN TURTLE DOVE.
TURTUR SENEGALENSiS.

55

TUBTUK SENEGALENSIS.

(EGYPTIAN TURTLE DOVE.)

Columba turtur gutture maculato senegalensis, Briss. Orn. i. p. 125, pi. viii. fig. 3 (1760).

Columba senegalensis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 283 (1766, ex Briss.).

Tourterelle a gorge fachetee du Senegal, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 553 (1771).

Tourterelle grise de Surate, Sonn. Voy. Ind. ii. p. 180 (1782).

Cambayan Turtle, Lath. Syn. ii. pt. 2, p. 652 (1783).

Senegal Turtle, Lath. torn. cit. p. 655 (1783).

Columba cambayensis, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 779 (1788).

Columba cegyptiaca, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 607 (1790).

Columba suratensis, Vieill. Tabl. Encycl. i. p. 236 (1823).

Columba maculicollis, Wagl. Syst. Av. Columba, no. 97 (1827).

Turtur senegalensis (L.), Bp. Ucc. Eur. p. 52 (1842).

Peristera senegalensis (L.), C. L. Brehm, Vog dfang, p. 257 (1855).

Peristera rufescens, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Peristera cegyptiaca (Lath.), C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Turtur cambayensis (Gm.), Reichenb. Naturg. Columb. p. 72 (1856 I).

Peristera rufescens, L. Brehm, Nat. u. Zucht der Taub. p. 54 (1857).

Peristera -pygmma, L. Brehm, Nat. u. Zucht der Taub. p. 56 (1857).

Turtur rufescens (Br.), Reichenb. Naturg. Columb. ii. p. 173 (1862).

Turtur pygmoeus (Br.), Reichenb. ut supra (1862).

Turtur savignyi, Reichenb. fide Finsch & Hartl. Vog. Ost-Afr. p. 551 (1870).

Figurce notabiles.
Temm. & Knip, Pig. pi. 45 ; Savigny, Desc. de l'Egypte, pi. 5. fig. 9 ; Bree, B. of Eur. iii.
pi. to p. 195.

3 ad. capite et collo purpureo-vinaceis : dorso et scapularibus cinnamomeo-fuscis : tectricibus alarum intimis
rufescenti-cinnamomeis : uropygio ceritraliter et supracaudalibus sordide fuscis, uropygio lateraliter
cserulescenti-cinereo : remigibus nigro-fuscis, extiis vix albido marginatis : rectricibus centralibus
fuscis, reliquis ad basin schistaceis fascia mediana nigricante instructis, extends in parte apicali
albis, reliquis pallide schistaceo-einereis : plumis colli lateralibus et frontalibus nigris valde cinnamomeo
apicatis : pectore rufescenti-vinaceo, abdomine albido, subcaudalibus niveis : hypochondriis caerulescenti-
cinereis : rostro nigricante, versus basin rufescente tincto : iride rufa : pedibus rosaceis.

Jun. {fide Von Heugl. Orn. N.O.-Afr. i. p. 843) capite, collo et pectore sordide cinnamomeo-fulvis colore
vinaceo intermixto : torque jugulari nigro nullo : alee tectricibus, supracaudalibus et tertiariis (his
partim) late nee abrupte fulvo limbatis : abdominis plumis pallide et sordide colore rufo-fulvescente
umbratis.

Adult Male (Egypt, 31st March). Head and upper part of the neck and hind neck purplish pink; back
and scapulars warm brown, becoming clear warm clay-rufous on the inner wing-coverts ; sides of the
rump blue, the centre and the upper tail-coverts dull brown; quills blackish brown, externally
narrowly margined with dull white ; wing-coverts (except as above stated) dove-blue ; central rectrices
brown, the remaining tail-feathers slate-blue at the base, then black, the terminal half being white in
the outer feathers, and dull slaty grey on the inner ones ; feathers on the sides and front of the neck
black, with broad yellowish coppery tips to the feathers forming a collar ; chest pinky vinous, gradually
fading into white towards the vent ; eyelids lilac-red ; bill dusky, with a reddish shade towards the base ;
feet red; iris orange-red. Total length about 11"5 inches, culmen - 75, wing 5 - 8, tail 4 - 7, tarsus - 85.

Adult Female. Resembles the male, but is somewhat paler in general tinge of colour.

Young (fide Von Heuglin) . Head, neck, and breast dull cinnamon-brown, intermixed with vinous, the
collar wanting; wing and upper tail-coverts and some of the inner secondaries washed with brown;
abdomen pale and dull in colour, and clouded with reddish brown.

Obs. The present species varies very considerably in size; but I cannot discover, after a most careful exami-
nation of a considerable series, that the difference is any thing but individual ; for I find that the extreme
variation exists in specimens from the same locality : thus the variation in the length of the wing in
examples from North Africa is from 5"2 to 5 - 85; and I find nearly as much difference in specimens
from other parts of Africa and India.

The range of the present species, as far as the Western Paleearctic Region is concerned, is
restricted to the extreme southern and south-eastern portions ; but it is found in Asia, eastward
as far as Central India, and in Africa as far south as the Cape colony. In Europe, north of the
Mediterranean, it is only known to have occurred in Greece and Turkey; and the statement
made by Messrs. Degland and Gerbe that it straggles to Spain and Portugal lacks confirmation.
Count von der Miihle (Orn. Griechenl. p. 83) gives an accurate description of it, and says that
he has several times shot it in Greece in the summer ; and Dr. Kriiper says that it is only a
rare bird in that country ; Messrs. Sclater and Taylor observed it at Stamboul ; and Strickland
speaks of it as being numerous amongst the cypress trees in the Mahometan churchyards near
Constantinople and Smyrna; and Dr. Kriiper states that in Asia Minor he found it very
common, and breeding at Smyrna and Axari. Canon Tristram writes (Ibis, 1868, p. 210) that
it " is a permanent resident in Palestine, not increasing its number by migration, confined
chiefly to the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea and the Lower Jordan, but residing throughout
the year even in the courtyards of houses in Jerusalem and in the temple-area, where, from its
tame and confiding habits, it appears to be semidomesticated." In North-east Africa it is a
common species ; and Captain Shelley, who says that it is very abundant in Egypt, adds that it
is the only species which remains there throughout the year. Von Heuglin states that he did
not observe it in the highlands of Abyssinia above 7000-8000 feet, and that on the White Nile
it is rarer than in Nubia, Egypt, Arabia, and on the Abyssinian coast ; and Mr. Blanford says
that it is most abundant in Abyssinia in the subtropical belt, from 3000 to 6000 feet, but occurs
both above and below these limits. It is found throughout the north of Africa, being resident
and common in Algeria; and Mr. Salvin says (Ibis, 1859, p. 318) that he observed it in many
places in the Eegency of Tunis. According to Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt-Drake it is common in the

57

southern portion of Morocco ; but M. Favier does not record it from Tangier. Dr. C. Bolle
records it from trie Canaries, and says (J. f. O. 1857, p. 332) that "it is found every spring in
Fuerteventura, and must nest there. Senor Don Francisco Manrique, who lives permanently on
the above island, says that it most certainly inhabits the place. It is called there Tortola de
Africa ; and this is probably the reason which has led Ledru to the confusion with the tropical
Peristera afra." On the west coast it is recorded from Senegal; and Mr. H. T. Ussher writes
(Ibis, 1874, p. 71), it is "common in the eastern districts of the Gold Coast, and seems
especially fond of the immediate vicinity of houses or villages. All those shot by me were
obtained among the houses of Christiansborg and in the ruins of the fort, where they appear to
build in some numbers. They are also to be met with near the little villages of the interior
eastern districts ; but I have not seen them in Fantee." Andersson states (B. of Damara Land,
p. 232) that he met with it " abundantly from the Okavango river southwards throughout
Damara Land and Great and Little Namaqualand, as also at Lake N'gami." Mr. E. L. Layard
says (B. of S. Afr. p. 261) that it is found throughout the Cape colony. According to Mr. J. H.
Gurney it is only known to him to have once occurred at Natal ; but Dr. Kirk found it common
on the Zambesi. Mr. Blanford includes it his list of birds occurring in Persia, as seen only in
Baluchistan ; but Eichwald says that it inhabits the west coast of the Caspian from Persia to
Astrachan. Dr. Jerdon states (B. of India, ii. p. 479) that the present species is " found through-
out the greater part of India, not occurring in Ceylon, Malabar, or Lower Bengal, nor in the
countries to the eastwards, but very abundant in Central and especially in "Western India, also
in Sindh and the Punjab." Dr. SevertzofF says that it is resident in Turkestan ; but it was not
met with on the Yarkand expedition.

In habits the present species is much tamer and more sociable even than the common Turtle
Dove, and especially so in Mahometan countries, where it is never molested and inhabits the
gardens and courtyards in a semidomesticated state. Dr. A. E. Brehm, speaking of the habits of
this bird, says (Erg. Reise Habesch, p. 376) that it is never met with in such large flocks as the
Rock-Dove, but is quite as numerous as that species, and is found everywhere, both in the palm-
groves and in every large garden in the middle of the villages and towns, and is never molested
by the natives. It nests, without any attempt at concealment, often in a bush scarcely five feet
above the ground; and he has frequently found nests on which the old bird was sitting, who
when discovered evinced no sign of alarm, but remained quietly on her eggs, evidently certain
that she would not be molested. Captain Shelley also writes (B. of Egypt, p. 217) respecting
this species in Egypt as follows : — " It is very sociable and tame, and not so fast on the wing as
the other species. In every palm-grove pairs may be seen sitting together on the long leaf-stems ;
and in the villages they may be found strutting along the mud walls which form the native
houses. They have begun breeding by the end of February, both in trees and on the ground by
the side of banks." Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., sends me the following note: — "The Palm-Dove
(Turtur senegalensis) frequents every kind of bush and tree. Hundreds of them roost in some
orange-trees at a village near Benisouef ; and a grove of dwarf palms is often a favourite resort.
In the towns and villages there are always many ; and it is usually the first bird one sees on
landing at Alexandria, as they perch on the boats in the harbour. A pair settled one day on the
awning of the diabeyha ; and on another occasion one actually came into the cabin. The young

58

bird is brown, so unlike the old one that it might be taken for a different species. My attention
was first drawn to the remarkable variation in plumage by shooting a very light-yellowish female
on the 12th of March. Afterwards I found great difference in the tints, especially of the head
and neck, which I could not reconcile in any way."

The nest of the present species is a very slight platform of sticks, like that of the common
Turtle Dove ; and its eggs resemble those of that species, but are slightly smaller in size.

The specimen figured is an adult male from Egypt, in my own collection, and is the bird
above described.

In the preparation of the above article 1 have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 . Ghor el Safieh, Palestine, January 29th, 1864 (H. B. Tristram), b, 6 . Egypt, March 31st, 1870 (G. E.
Shelley), c, 6 . Egypt, April 4th, 1870 (G. E. S.).

E Mus. 6. E. Shelley.

a, <j. Fayoom, Egypt, March 14th, 1871 (G.E.S.). b. Plains of Accra (Ussher). c. Cape of Good Hope.
d. Zambesi {Mellar).

E Mus. Brit. Reg.

«7 6 > b, 2 • Jericho {H. B. Tristram), c, $ . Egypt, April 1st, 1868 (G. E. Shelley), d, tf. Tigre, Abyssinia,
March 27th, 1868. e, ? . Ailat, Abyssinia, June 27th, 1868 {W. T. Blanford). f, g. Tette {Dr. Living-
stone), h. Niger Expedition (Dr. Balfour Baikie). h. Senegal (Laglaize). i,j. India (Dr. Burns).
k, I. Kamptee, India (Dr. Hinde) . m. Gangontra, India.

59

Family PTEROCLID^l.

Genus PTEROCLES.

Lagopus apud Brisson, Orn. i. p. 195 (1760).
Tetrao apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 276 (1766).
Pterocles, Temminck, Pig. et Gallin. iii. p. 240 (1815).
(Enas apud Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. xii. p. 418 (1817).
Pteroclurus apud Bonaparte, Compt. Rend, xliii. p. 880 (1856).

The Sand-Grouse resemble the Pigeons so closely in structure, and especially in the form of the
sternum, that they cannot well be separated from them ; and they appear to form, as it were, a
link between them and the Gallinae. The genus Pterocles is represented in the Palsearctic,
Oriental, and Ethiopian Regions, two species only being found in the Western Palsearctic
Region. It is very possible that two African species, Pterocles exustus, Temm., and Pterocles
senegallus (L.), may straggle into the southern portion of the Western Palsearctic Region ; but
they cannot at present fairly be included in the list.

The Sand-Grouse, as their name implies, frequent sand plains, steppes, and open, treeless
localities, usually dry and arid places ; but they are also found in the stubble-fields in search of
their food, which consists of seeds and shoots of plants &c. Their flight is direct, protracted,
and very swift ; and their cry is a loud, peculiar croak. They are gregarious, and are frequently
seen in large flocks ; and, like the Pigeons, they resort to regular drinking-places, which they
usually visit in the morning and evening. They walk with tolerable ease considering their
short legs, and will often travel considerable distances. They are monogamous, and nest
on the ground, merely scratching a hole in which they deposit their eggs, usually three
in number, which are ochreous or buff, marked with brown or rufous, and in shape rather
elongated oval. When the young are hatched they are covered with down, but are somewhat
helpless for several days, during which time they are fed by the mother, who disgorges food for
them after the manner of the Pigeons, after which they are able to run about and search for
food for themselves. It is stated by some observers that when the Sand-Grouse incubate they
lie on one side, spreading one wing to cover the eggs, a position for which the deep keel of the
sternum is admirably adapted.

Pterocles alchata, the type of the genus, has the bill short, stout, curved gradually down-
wards from the nostrils, and ending in an acute point ; nostrils basal, elongated, oval, lateral,
partly closed by a membrane, which is partly hidden by the feathers ; wings very long, pointed,
the first quill longest ; tail moderate, wedge-shaped, the central rectrices elongated ; legs short,
tarsus stout, anteriorly feathered; hind toe rudimentary, anterior toes short, stout, united at
the base by a membrane ; claws short, stout, slightly curved, rather obtuse.

160

60

466

ul

IS)

=>

o —
a g

UJ en
DQ a:

J- Ld

o

61

PTEEOCLES AKENAKIUS.

(BLACK-BELLIED SAND-GROUSE.)

Tetrao arenaria, Pallas, Nov. Com. Petrop. xix. p. 418. pi. 8 (1774).

Sand-Grouse, Latham, Syn. iv. p. 751 (1783).

Tetrao fasciatus, Desfont. Mem. de l'Acad. des Sc. p. 502 (1787).

Aragonian Partridge, Lath. Syn. Suppl. p. 223 (1787).

Tetrao arenarius, Pall., Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 642 (1790).

Perdix aragonica, Lath. torn. cit. p. 645 (1790).

Pterocles arenarius (Pall.), Temm. Pig. et Gallin. iii. p. 240 (1815).

(Ems arenaria (Pall), Vieill. N. Diet. xii. p. 423 (1817).

Ganga unibande, French ; Cortisol, Barriga-negra, Portuguese ; Corteza, Ortega, Churra,
Churra Manchega, Spanish ; Koudhre, Arabic.

Figurce notabiles.
Pallas, I. c. ; Temminck, PL Col. 52, 53 ; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 9 ; Fritsch, Vog.
Eur. taf. 32. figs. 9-13 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 153 ; Gould, B. of Eur. p. 257.

cj ad. pileo, nucha et collo postico pallide cserulescenti-cinereis : dorso, scapularibus, uropygio et tectricibus
alarum minoribus ockrascenti-aurantiacis grisescente nigro variegatis, uropygio saturatiore ; remigibus
saturate cinereis, rhacbibus nigris, primario primo in pogonio externo brunnescenti-cinereo, primariis
intimis vix albido apicatis : secundariis in pogonio externo ocbrascenti-aurantiaco notatis, intimis
nonnullis scapularibus concoloribus : tectricibus alarum majoribus fere totis flavicariti-aurantiacis :
Cauda, brunnescenti-cinerea, brunneo indistincte fasciata et albido terminate : gula rufescente, mento
pallidiore, colli lateribus rufescenti-aurantiacis, gula ima macula magna, nigra notata : jugulo et
pectore cinerescenti-margaritaceis vix isabellino tinctis, pectore linea nigra transfasciata : abdomine
nigro : tarsi plumis pallide cervinis : subcaudalibus flavicanti-albidis : subalaribus et axillaribus albis.

2 ad. corpore supra ochrascenti-arenaceo, nigro fasciato : pileo, nucha et collo postico nigro striatis : remigibus
saturate brunnescenti- cinereis, secundariis extimis ad basin isabellinis nigricante marmoratis, secundariis
intimis et tectricibus alarum dorso concoloribus, sed tectricibus majoribus valde ochrascente aurantiaco
terminatis : gula, ochrascenti-flava, ima nigro transfasciata : gutture imo et pectore superiore rufescenti-
ochraceis nigro guttatis, pectore in parte inferiore linea nigra transfasciato : abdomine et corpore imo
subtiis nigris : tibiae et tarsi plumis sordide et pallide ochraceis : subcaudalibus albidis, subalaribus
albis.

Adult Male (Ludjak, 24th June). Crown, nape, and hind neck pearl-grey, with a faint ashy tinge; back,
scapulars, lesser wing-coverts, rump, and upper tail-coverts variegated greyish black and orange clay-
colour, the feathers being at the base clay-orange, marbled with blackish, towards the centre crossed
by a broad bar of greyish black, and finally broadly tipped with rufescent ochraceous ; rump rather
darker than the rest of the upper parts; quills bluish grey, shafts black, the first primary with the

62

entire outer web brownish grey, the inner primaries slightly tipped with white ; secondaries marked on
the outer web with orange-yellow, some of the inner ones closely approaching the scapulars in colora-
tion ; larger wing-coverts almost entirely orange-yellow ; tail brownish ash, barred chiefly towards the
base with indistinct blackish brown bars, and broadly tipped with white ; chin and upper part of the
throat rusty red, much paler on the chin, and on the sides of the neck becoming rusty orange, below
this a large black mark; lower neck and breast pearl-grey, with an isabelline tinge; across the breast
a clearly defined black stripe is carried to the base of the wings ; abdomen black, slightly marked with
creamy grey towards the breast ; feathers on the lower tibia tipped with pale sandy buff, and feathers
in front of the tarsus pale buff; under tail-coverts pale yellowish white; under wing-coverts and
axillaries pure white; bill dull horn-brown; feet dull lead-grey; iris brown. Total length about
14| inches, culmen 0-65, gape 07, wing 9'2, tail 4-1, tarsus 13.
A male in Canon Tristram's collection, killed in November, resembles the male above described; but the
markings on the upper surface of the body are more blurred, and the upper parts generally are more
rufous.

Adult Female. Upper parts pale sandy ochre, closely barred with black, except on the head, nape, and hind
neck, where the black markings on the feathers are confined to the centres, and give those parts a
striped appearance ; primary quills dark greyish brown, the outer secondaries similarly coloured on
the terminal portion, but at the base pale isabelline, marbled with blackish, inner secondaries and
wing-coverts like the back, except that the larger coverts are broadly tipped with dull clay-orange ;
tail as in the male, but more distinctly marked ; sides of the head clay-yellow, striped with black ;
upper throat clay-yellow on the lower part, crossed with a tolerably broad blackish stripe ; lower throat
and breast rufescent-ochre, marked with drop-shaped spots of black, and on the lower part crossed by a
black band, below which there is a narrow space unspotted, the rest of the underparts being black,
except the feathers on the lower tibia and tarsus, which are pale clay-yellow ; under tail-coverts dirty
white ; under wing-coverts white.

Young Male (near Seville, 4th October). Head, neck, breast, and entire upper parts dull sandy yellow or
pale ochre, barred and marked with black ; feathers on the wing-coverts and breast with a subapical
black bar following the contour of the feather ; quills dull greyish black, broadly tipped with dull clay,
slightly marbled with blackish brown, secondaries dull yellowish white, except at the base, where they
are white, and broadly terminated with dull greyish black, slightly marbled with dull fulvous ; elongated
inner secondaries marked like the dorsal feathers, but slightly washed with fulvous ; tail dull elay-yellow,
washed with fulvous, and barred with black ; abdomen black. This specimen is very young, as is shown
by the short wings and the remains of down amongst the feathers on the breast, lower back, and on the
under surface of the wings.

The Black-bellied Sand-Grouse inhabits South-western Europe (being found only in other parts of
Southern Europe as a straggler), Northern Africa, and Western Asia. It has once occurred in
Germany ; and Naumann (Vog. Deutschl. vi. p. 265) says that a pair were seen, one of which
was killed, in 1801 at Ziebigk, between Cothen and Dessau, in Anhalt. It does not, however,
appear to have occurred in France, though it is found in Spain and Portugal. The Eev. A. C.
Smith speaks of it (Ibis, 1868, p. 450) as being common in open districts in Portugal ; and
Dr. E. Key says that he believes he saw it at Algarve, and received its eggs from there. In
Spain, according to Mr. Howard Saunders (Ibis, 1871, p. 223), "it is found on the coast in
winter, but during the rest of the year prefers higher and more arid localities than Pterocles

6-

«j

alchata, which it almost replaces in La Mancha." And in a letter just received from Lord Lilford,,
he writes as follows: — " I have met with it in New Castile, near Aranjuez, in May 1865, in large
flocks, and in the Marisma of the Guadalquivir in small parties at the same season in 1864, 1869,
and 1872. I believe it to be a permanent resident in suitable localities throughout Spain, but
not so abundant in Andalucia as Pterocles alchata." Temminck speaks of it as inhabiting Sicily;
but this appears to have been a mistake, as none of the Italian naturalists has ever met with it.
It has twice been recorded from Greece. Von der Muhle (Orn. Griechenl. p. 84) obtained one
specimen which was shot between Megara and Thebes late in the autumn ; and Lindermayer
(Vog. Griechenl. p. 122) obtained another about the same time from Messogion, in the district
about Hymettus.

Von Nordmann says that it is rare in New Russia, but more numerous in the eastern steppes
and in those of the Caucasus. I do not find it recorded from Asia Minor ; but Canon Tristram
met with it in Palestine, and says (P. Z. S. 1864, p. 449) that Mr. Cochrane obtained it to the
north-east of Hermon, and he also observed it in the same district. I do not find any record of
its occurrence in North-east Africa ; but it is found in the north-western portion of that continent.
Loche states that he met with it in the large plains of the Sahara throughout the year, and in
the plain of Chelif during the breeding-season. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., says that it is found in
the northern portion of the Sahara; and Mr. Osbert Salvin writes (Ibis, 1859, p. 353), it "is
found in the same localities as Pterocles alchata ; but it also occurs about Djendeli and the
Madracen, where I never met with that species." Mr. W. T. Chambers-Hodgetts met with it in
Tripoli, and writes (Ibis, 1867, p. 103) as follows: — "While wandering near the waterfall just
after sunset, I was delighted at hearing the unmistakable clucking of Sand-Grouse, and soon
perceived large quantities flying high overhead due south. An Arab informed me they con-
stantly came to drink at this spot early. Next morning at break of day I was on the look-out.
No Sand-Grouse, however, made their appearance ; and my Arab, ever ready with an excuse,
assured me that it was too cold ; but the next day on leaving Turhona, and travelling over a
sandy plain covered with rough grass, I fell in with them in great numbers, though they were
so wild that I could not once get within range. Their size and black breasts showed them to
be Pterocles arenaria; but the Arabs asserted that two other species are also found there."
According to F. Schousboe (J. f. O. 1857, p. 333) it is common during the winter on the plains
near Morocco, and found even to the foot of the Atlas, but it is rather rarer at Tangier. Lord
Lilford informs me that he met with large flocks of this species on the plains near Tunis in
November and December 1856.

It occurs in the Canaries, where, according to Dr. C. Bolle (J. f. O. 1855, p. 173), "it is a
resident in the deserts of Fuerteventura, whence it occasionally straggles over to Gran Canada ;"
and he further writes (J. f. O. 1857, p. 332) that it is not uncommon in the south-eastern por-
tions of Canaria, at Juangrande and Sardinas ; but it is uncertain as to whether they breed there
or only come over from the Tierra del Moro.

To the eastward it extends to the plains of India ; De Filippi records it from Persia, and
Messrs. Dickson and Ross say (P. Z. S. 1839, p. 121) that it is " very common near Erzeroom, and
is said to breed, towards the end of April, on the adjoining hills, amongst loose stones. Arrives in
the beginning of April ; they are then seen in those fields that are free from snow, close to the

64

town. In summer frequents bare sterile grounds. Quits Erzeroom about the end of September."
Mr. A. O. Hume speaks (Stray Feathers, i. p. 219) of it being "met with occasionally in Upper
Sindh (I did not myself see it lower than Sehwan, though I heard of its occurrence), but never
in any thing like the numbers in which it occurs throughout the North-west Punjab and parts of
Eajpootana. In fact, as far as I could see and learn, the only Rock-Grouse which occurred in
very great numbers were P. alchata and P. senegallus." Dr. Jerdon (B. of India, ii. p. 497), as
" found only in the North-west Provinces nnd Sindh, rarely extending as low as Allahabad,
tolerably abundant in the Punjab, and said to be very numerous towards the edges of the great
desert. It is recorded in the Bengal ' Sporting Magazine ' as " common in the Doab between
the Ganges and Jumna, near Futteyghur, in Rohilcund, near Ferozepore, in Humana, and in
various parts of the Punjab. I have heard of its having been killed near Nusseerabad and also in
Khandeish. It is only a winter visitant to India, arriving towards the end of September and
leaving in March." Severtzoff (Turk. Jevotnie, p. 68) speaks of it as being common throughout
Turkestan, where it breeds, to an altitude of about 4000 feet.

The Black-breasted Sand-Grouse is essentially an inhabitant of the plains and flat open
country, especially dry arid deserts and steppes where there is a wide expanse of sand and but
few or no bushes ; but it often frequents the stubble-fields in search of food. Lord Lilford, who
has frequently obtained it in Spain, informs me that " it is a very wary bird, and only to be shot
by chance, except by stalking with a horse or by waiting in ambush at their drinking-places. It
breeds in the marisma and many other parts of Spain, the usual number of eggs deposited being
three ; and several pairs generally nest in close proximity to each other. They are very fast on
the wing, and get up with a rattling of wings like a flight of pigeons, and have a loud and
peculiar croaking cry. In Andalucia they are called ' Corteza,' in some parts of Spain ' Ortega,'
and in others ' Churra ' or ' Churra Manchega.' I have often kept them alive ; they become very
tame, and feed readily on any kind of grain, wheat, barley, millet, canary-seed, hemp-seed, &c.
In my estimation the flesh is very poor eating, but better than that of Pterocles alohata."
Dr. C. Bolle says that they are snared in the Canaries by placing nooses in a small path leading
to their drinking-places, made by putting rows of stones, over which, owing to the shortness of
its legs, the Sand-Grouse will not step.

Dr. Jerdon, writing on its habits in India, says (I. c.) that " it frequents extensive open sandy
plains, flies in vast flocks, being said to be more abundant than P. exustus in those parts where
it does occur. Like the others of this tribe, it goes regularly to certain spots on the banks of
rivers or tanks to drink, which it does twice a day ; and it is fond of basking in the sun and
rolling on the sand. One writer records that he saw them about sunrise leave their roosting-
places among sand-hills and collect in thousands on a hard bare plain, close to where they
usually drank, but that they were neither feeding nor drinking at that early hour, and came
there, he suggests, for the sake of basking in the early sun's rays. It feeds on grassy plains,
and also on stubble-fields, and does so especially immediately after drinking. The flight of this
Sand-Grouse is said to be amazingly strong and rapid ; and when roused, it flies to great distances.
It is generally said to be a shy and wary bird, and difficult to approach closely, from the open
nature of the country it affects ; it is highly esteemed as a game bird, and much sought after by
many sportsmen, as well for the difficulty of close access, as for its qualities on the table. It is

65

stated that, from the closeness and firmness of its plumage, it takes a good gun and heavy shot to
bring it down. A writer records the great preponderance of one sex in every flock, sometimes
killing seven or eight females and not one male, and vice versd. The flesh is mixed brown and
white on the breast; and though somewhat tough when fresh, and perhaps requiring to be
skinned, it is reckoned delicious eating ; indeed one writer says that it is the finest game bird for
the table in India. Shooting them from a hole dug in the ground near their drinking-spots is
said to be a very deadly way of making a good bag ; and this I can readily believe. It is caught
in the neighbourhood of Peshawur and other places in horse-hair nooses."

Its nest is said to be a mere depression in the soil scratched out by the bird ; and three are
the number of eggs usually deposited. I possess several eggs collected at Arganda, in Spain,
early in June. In shape they are oval, rather elongated, tapering equally towards each end, and
in colour are light stone-colour or buff, more or less marbled with very indistinct purplish grey
underlying shell-markings and light brown overlying surface-blotches, which latter in some of
the specimens are drawn in fantastical shapes ; and in most of the eggs the dark markings are
more or less collected round one end. In size they vary from lf^ by l^f to 2 inches by 1^.
Canon Tristram writes (Ibis, 1860, p. 70), " the eggs are placed two in a line, and the third
lengthwise outside them, in a depression in the sand without any nest. The bird in sitting, as I
have observed, lies on one side, spreading out one wing to cover the eggs, thus presenting a
grotesque lopsided appearance ; but it is a position for which the deep keel of her sternum
admirably adapts her."

The specimens figured are an adult male and female from my own collection, these being
those I have above described ; but the young bird I have also described is in the collection of
my friend Mr. Howard Saunders.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

E Mus. E. E. Dresser.

a. Southern Spain (Saunders) . b,6 . Cordova, Spain, January 3rd, 1872 (Lord Lilford) . c, $ . Spain (Lord
Lilford). d, 2. Ludjak (Ladak?), December 11th, 1864. e, 6. Ludjak, June 24th, 1864. /. Punjab,
1868 (Marshall).

E Mm. H. B. Tristram,
a, d , b,2. Laghouat, Sahara, November 1856 (H. T. B.).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, 6 . Seville district, March 28th, 1869. b, 6, c, ? , d,juv. October 10th, 1868.

3n

66

467

0>

3 -
O <c

< <
(/J </•>

^ or

67

PTEEOCLES ALCHATA.

(PIN-TAILED SAND-GROUSE.)

The Little Pin-tailed Grous, Edw. Gleanings, p. 84, pi. 249 (1758).

Bonasia pyrenaica, Briss. Orn. i. p. 195, pi. 19. fig. 1 (1760).

Tetrao alchata, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 276 (1766).

Pterocles setarius, Temm. Pig. et Gallin. iii. p. 256 (1815).

(Enas cata, Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xii. p. 418 (1817).

Pterocles alchata, Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 64 (1823).

Tetrao chata, Pall. Zoogr. Eosso-As. ii. p. 73 (1831).

Pterocles caspius, Menet. Cat. Rais. p. 47 (1832).

Pteroclurus alchata (L.), Bp. Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 880 (1856).

Ganga cata, French ; Cortigol, Portuguese ; Ganga, Spanish ; Grandule, Italian ; el Guett'ha,

Arabic.

Figurw notabiles.
Edwards, /. c. ; D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 105, 106; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 10; Fritsch,

Vog. Eur. taf. 32. fig. 10; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 258; Roux, Orn. Prov. pis. 248, 249.

6 ad. pileo, nucha et collo postico saturate brunnescenti-cinereis flavido lavatis : dorso et scapularibus brun-
nescenti-cinereis, plumis omnibus fulvescente flavido terminatis : remigibus primariis (primo excepto) in
pogonio externo sordide canis et in pogonio interno brunnescenti-cinereis, rhachibus et primario primo
in pogonio externo nigris, secundariis in pogonio interno sordide albis et in pogonio externo saturate
brunnescenti-cinereis vix albido marginatis, secundariis intimis elongatis sordide brunneis : tectricibus
alarum omnibus ad basin saturate cinereis, in medio pallide canis, versus apicem lsete castaneo-rufis,
ante apicem flavidis et vix nigro apicatis : tectricibus majoribus nonnullis extimis eodem modo coloratis,
sed intimis ad basin saturate cinereis, versus apicem fulvo-flavidis et nigro apicatis : uropygio et supra-
caudalibus flavicantibus, nigro fasciatis : rectricibus duabus centralibus valde elongatis, versus apicem
attenuatis, brunneis, ad basin tectricibus concoloribus : rectricibus reliquis in pogonio externo nigro et
flavido fasciatis, in pogonio interno nigricanti-cinereis et conspicue albo terminatis : gula et stria infra
oculos nigerrimis : capitis lateribus fulvo-flavidis, stria supraoculari areaque gulam circumeunte
rufescenti-fulvis, collo reliquo antice et lateraliter fulvo-fiavido : pectoris fascia latissima cinnamomeo-
rufa, supra et infra stricte nigro marginata : abdomine, crisso tarsorumque plumulis albis : subcau-
dalibus nigricanti-cinereis, sordide flavido fasciatis et albo terminatis : subalaribus interioribus albis,
exterioribus fuliginosis : rostro brunnescenti-corneo, pedibus plumbescenti-brunneis : iride fusca.

2 capite et corpore supra flavicantibus, nigro et cinereo fasciatis, dorsi plumis et scapularibus nonnullis fascia
subapicali lsete caerulescenti-cinerea notatis : remigibus ut in mare coloratis sed pallidioribus : tectricibus
alarum rufescenti-ochraceis, ceerulescente cinereo et nigro-fusco fasciatis, ante apicem ceerulescente
margaritaceo et flavido fasciatis et vix nigro apicatis : cauda ut in mare : gula albida, : colli lateribus et
genis fulvo-flavidis vix rufescente tinctis : pectoris fascia fulvo-cinnamomea utrinque nigro marginata :
corpore subtus imo ut in mare.

3i\2

68

Adult Male (Seville, May). Crown, nape, and hind neck dark ashy grey, with a brown tinge, and washed
with yellowish ; hack and scapulars dark brownish ash, all the feathers broadly terminated with dull
golden yellow ; primaries bluish ash on the outer web, and dark ashy brown on the inner web, except
the first quill, which has the outer web black except at the extreme tip ; shafts of the primaries black ;
secondaries dull white on the inner web, and dark ashy brown narrowly margined with white on the
outer web, excepting the rather elongated innermost secondaries, which are dull brown ; smaller and
median wing-coverts dark bluish ash at the base, becoming pale dove-colour towards the terminal
portion, which is rich chocolate-red, bordered with sulphur-yellow, and with a narrow apical border
of black ; some of the outer larger coverts similarly coloured ; but the inner ones are dark ash at the
base, then dull golden yellow, and narrowly bordered with blackish ; rump and upper tail-coverts light
yellowish, closely and distinctly barred with black, the two central rectrices much elongated and
narrowed towards the tip, the basal portion coloured like the tail-coverts, and the terminal portion
blackish brown ; remaining rectrices blackish ash on the inner web, barred like the coverts on the
outer web, and broadly terminated with white ; sides of the head dull golden yellow over the eye, and
on the sides of the throat rufescent-orange ; chin, upper throat, and a broad line behind the eye jet-
black ; lower part of the throat dull golden-yellow, below which there is a broad chestnut-red band
across the upper part of the breast, bordered above and below with black ; rest of the underparts and
■ under wing-coverts white, except the under tail-coverts, which are blackish grey, barred with dull
yellowish, and broadly tipped with white, and the outer edge of the underpart of the wing is dull
blackish ; beak dull horn-brown ; bare space round the eye dull lead-grey ; iris dark brown ; feet dull
greyish brown. Total length about 14 inches, culmen - 65, wing 7'3, tail 5 - 3, tarsus 1 - 15.

Adult Female (Seville, May). Upper parts rich yellowish, closely barred with black and ashy grey; and on
the back and scapulars most of the feathers have a broad subterminal ashy blue band ; quills as in the
male, but paler and bluer ; wing-coverts barred at the base with black on a rusty yellow ground, then
crossed by a broad band blue-grey, and one of clay-yellow, and narrowly tipped with black ; tail as in
the male ; chin and centre of the throat white, not black ; sides of the throat and neck yellow, with a
warm slightly reddish tinge; the pectoral band much paler than in the male, and bordered by two
black bands above and one below ; rest of the underparts as in the male. In size this specimen and
others I have are fully equal to the males.

Obs. Judging from the series I have examined, the winter plumage does not differ from that worn in the
summer.

Young Female (near Seville, 20th October) . Upper parts dull fulvous clay-coloured, barred with black,
except that in the interscapulary region and the larger wing-coverts and elongated inner secondaries
the ground-colour is much brighter, almost golden yellow ; quills as in the adult, but tipped with dull
fulvous and white; here and there amongst the lesser wing-coverts one of the characteristic feathers of
the adult plumage is pushing its way through ; central rectrices much less elongated than in the adult ;
chin and upper throat white ; sides of the head and neck and entire breast dull fulvescent buff, closely
marked or barred with black ; rest of the underparts white, except that on the centre of the abdomen
the feathers are tipped with black, and the under tail-coverts are as in the adult.

Young Male. A young male obtained near Seville on the 10th of November is much more nearly in adult
plumage than the bird last described, the breast, wings, and tail being as in the adult male ; but the
back is partly in the adult plumage and to some extent the feathers are as in the young female, the
head and upper neck being also coloured as in that specimen ; but the feathers on the chin and upper

69

throat are intermixed with black, and the lower throat above the red pectoral band is just assuming the
adult plumage.

Nestling {fide Loche) . Covered with reddish down, variegated with brown and rusty red.

This Sand-Grouse, like its congener Pterocles arenarius, inhabits Southern Europe and North
Africa, and ranges eastward into the western portion of India. It is stated by Borggreve (Vogelf.
Nord-Deutschl. p. 101) to have once occurred at Hanover; but I have no other record of its
having been found so far north in Central Europe. It is said to inhabit the flat portions of the
south of France, where it is resident and is found more especially in the arid plains of Crau, in
Provence; and Baron von Miiller says (J. f. O. 1856, p. 227) that it is so numerous there that a
bird-catcher, who made the catching of Sand-Grouse his speciality, occasionally brought as many
as fifty pair or more at once to him. According to Degland and Gerbe (Orn. Eur. ii. p. 24), it
straggles to the northern departments, and a young male was killed near la Bassee. In Portugal,
according to the Rev. A. C. Smith (Ibis, 1868, p. 451), it is by no means rare, though not so
common as Pterocles arenarius; and in Spain it is a common species in suitable localities.
Mr. Howard Saunders (Ibis, 1871, p. 223) says that it is "abundant in Andalucia, where it
breeds in May ;" and Lord Lilford also informs me that it is common and resident in Southern
Spain, on the plains and in the flat country.

It has been recorded as having occurred in Italy ; but Salvadori has been unable to
satisfy himself as to the authenticity of these recorded occurrences ; and Doderlein denies that
it has been obtained in Sicily, at least during his time. It has, however, occurred at Malta ,-
and Mr. C. A. Wright says (Ibis, 1864, p. 139), " Schembri records the capture of several
examples at Marsascirocco (a bay on the south-east coast of Malta), at the Marsa, and on the
islet of Comino, all in April 1843. Since then I have not heard of any others having been
taken." It has been met with in Greece, but only as a very rare straggler, as Von der Miihle
says (Om. Griechenl. p. 84) that he observed one between Nauplia and Epidaurus, and procured
a specimen from Eubcea. I can find no record of its ever having been met with in Southern
Germany ; nor does it appear to have occurred in Turkey in Europe ; but Von Nordmann states
that it is found in Southern Russia, where it is very rare in the Ekaterinoslaw district, but
common in the Caucasus and along the Araxes; Eversmann speaks of it (J. f. O. 1853, p. 292)
as inhabiting the Kirghis steppes, near Lake Ural; and Menetries, who described it as new
under the name of Pterocles caspius, says (I. c.) that it is tolerably rare in the steppes not far
from Bakou in the month of April. It is found in Asia Minor ; and in a letter received some
time ago from Dr. Kriiper he informs me that it breeds near Smyrna, on the extensive sand-
plains which skirt the river. Canon Tristram did not obtain a specimen when in Palestine ; but
he saw it several times in flocks, and says (P. Z. S. 1864, p. 449) that he has "no hesitation in
enumerating it as a Palestine species." In North-east Africa it is recorded by Von Heuglin (Orn.
N.O.-Afr. p. 855) as occurring in the Syrten, and from the vicinity of Beni-Ghazi, but was not
met with by Captain Shelley in Egypt, where it does not appear to occur. It is common in
North-western Africa, where it inhabits the sand-plains; and Mr. O. Salvin (Ibis, 1859, p. 352)
says that the only localities where he met with it in Algeria were the extensive sand-plains
termed the Harakta, of which El Tharf is one of the largest. Dr. Tristram says (Ibis, I860,

70

p. 70) that it does not approach so near the verge of cultivation northwards as Pterocles arenarius,
but is far more abundant, and continues to occur in vast flocks in winter in the Mzab and Toureg
country, where he never met with that species. Mr. L. Taczanowski speaks of it (J. f. 0. 1870,
p. 51) as being common in the Algerian deserts, but not so numerous as on the neighbouring
hills; and Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., informs me that he frequently saw it when in Algeria, where
amongst the French colonists it is known by the very inappropriate name of "Perdrix anglaise."
Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt-Drake records it from Tangier; and Von Heuglin speaks of it (J. f. O. 1862,
p. 415) as inhabiting Tripoli, and in his recent work (Orn. N.O.-Afr.) describes a female from
there. There does not appear to be any proof of its having been met with on the Canaries ; but
Dr. Carl Bolle says (J. f. O. 1857, p. 333) that he thinks it probable that it has occurred there,
as Viera speaks of having obtained Sand-Grouse which had some of the tail-feathers twice the
length of the others.

To the eastward the present species is found as far as the Punjab and Sindh. De Filippi
records it from Persia ; and Mr. Blanford informs me that he also met with it there not uncom-
monly. Mr. A. O. Hume writes (Stray Feathers, i. p. 221) as follows : — " I never myself succeeded
in shooting a single specimen of this species while in Sindh ; but I saw one or two flocks of it
some few miles west of Jacobabad, and I was assured by an officer there, who is not only a first-
rate sportsman but somewhat of an ornithologist also, that in this north-west corner of Sindh
they arrive in spring in countless multitudes, and are incomparably more numerous at that time
than all the other Sand-Grouse put together. They appear to remain for only a very short
period. For about three months in midwinter this species, known to local sportsmen as the
Painted Rock-Grouse, is abundant about Murdan, near Attock, in parts of the Peshawar valley,
Abbotabad, and some isolated localities in Huzara. Nowhere in India does it descend far into
the plains." Dr. Jerdon says that it is found in the Punjab and Sindh, and is, comparatively
speaking, a rare bird in India, only a few finding their way across the Sutlej ; it is, he states,
recorded to have been killed at Hansi. Severtzoff (Turk. Jevotnie, p. 68) speaks of it as being
" found throughout Turkestan, except in the north-eastern districts, where it has hitherto not
been observed. It breeds in the Karatau and Thian-Shan ranges, at an altitude of from 1000 to
4000 feet above the level of the sea."

In its habits the Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse does not appreciably differ from the Black-bellied
Sand-Grouse. Loche says (Expl. Sc. de l'Alg. Ois. ii. p. 233) that it is very common in the
Sahara, and occurs on the plains of Habra, Chelif, and Batna, but never approaches the coast.
It is shy and very wild, lives in large flocks, except during the breeding-season, feeds on seeds,
insects, and the leaves of various wild plants, and is especially partial to the seeds of Arthraterum
pungens. When in flocks they frequently traverse great distances on the wing in search of
water ; and during their flight they utter their loud note, kaat, kaat, Tea.

It is monogamous, and appears greatly attached to its mate during the breeding-season. Its
nest is a mere depression in the sand, under shelter of a stone, or quite in an open situation ; and
it lays two or three, very rarely four, eggs. In Spain, however, it appears only to lay two or
three, and never four eggs, as stated by Loche ; and Lord Lilford informs me that it breeds not
uncommonly in some parts, depositing its eggs, as stated by Loche, in a mere depression in the
ground, either in the sandy plains or in fallow land.

71

Its eggs are in shape similar to those of Pteroeles arenarius, but are much richer-coloured
and more boldly marked. I possess eggs from Algeria and Arganda, in Spain, which in colour
are warm clay-coloured or stone-ochre, with a faint reddish cream-tinge, and are marked with
faint purplish grey underlying shell-markings and dark reddish brown surface-spots and blotches,
which are scattered tolerably closely over the surface of the egg. In size they vary from Iff by
1^ to Iff by l-j§ inch, eggs from Algeria being both the palest and smallest.

Mr. Salvin says that the eggs are laid in May, the young being hatched about the second
week in June. According to Loche, the young when they emerge from the shell are covered
with down, but are helpless, or at least unable to run, being fed by the mother, who disgorges
the food for them after the manner of a Pigeon ; but after a few days they are able to run and
to search for their own food. Should, however, there be no water in the immediate vicinity, the
mother brings it to them until they are able to fly.

The specimens figured are the adult male and female described, and are in my collection,
the young bird described being in the collection of Mr. Howard Saunders.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a, 6 , b,2 • Seville, Spain, May. c, 6 , d, <* , e, $ . Seville {Lord Lilford).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram,
a, b. Spain, November 1 867. c, <$ . Laghouat, Sahara, November 5th, 1856 {H. B. T.) . d, 2 ■ Sahara,
November 14th, 1856 {H. B. T.).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, 6 ad. Near Seville, April 22nd, 1869 {H. S.). b, $ . Near Seville, May 18th, 1870. c, 6, d, $. Near
Seville, November 10th, 1869. e, 3 ad. Near Seville, June 4th, 1868 (H. S.). f, § juv. Near Seville,
October 20th, 1869.

72

n c :

eJ

Genus SYERHAPTES.

Tetrao apud Pallas, Eeise Euss. Eeichs, ii. App. p. 712 (1773).
Syrrha/ptes, Illiger, Prodr. p. 243 (1811).

Nematura apud Fischer, Mem. Soc. Nat. Mosc. iii. p. 271 (1812).
Heteroclitus apud Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. xiv. p. 453 (1817).
Pterocles apud Swainson, Classif. of B. ii. p. 343 (1837).

In many respects the species belonging to the present genus closely resemble the true Sand-
Grouse, but they differ widely in the form of 'the foot, and in having the legs and toes closely
feathered to the claws.

These birds inhabit the steppes of the Eastern Palsearctic Eegion, one species being found
as a rare and sporadic straggler in the Western Palsearctic Eegion. In habits these birds assi-
milate closely to the species belonging to the genus Pterocles. They are gregarious, frequently
consorting together in large flocks, and inhabit vast steppes and sand plains. Their flight is
extremely rapid ; and they make a peculiar whistling sound when flying. In the morning
and evening they resort to their regular drinking-places, which are frequently far distant from
their feeding-grounds. Their call-note is a somewhat melodious chuckle, which is often uttered
when they are on the wing. They feed on soft shoots, seeds, and berries of various kinds which
are found in the steppes. They do not construct any nest, but place their eggs in a depression
in the ground, usually depositing three buff eggs, marked with dark brown. The young birds
when hatched are covered with down, and are able to shift for themselves, like the young of
the Gallinse.

Syrrhaptes paradoxus, the type of the genus, has the bill very small, straight, gradually
decurved from the base to the point, which, though obtuse, is sharp-edged; nostrils basal,
concealed by the frontal feathers; wings very long and pointed, the first quill longest, and
having the tip much elongated and attenuate; tail rather long, much graduated, the central
rectrices much elongated, and attenuated to fine points; legs short, closely feathered to the
toes, which are only separated close to the claws ; soles of the feet rugous ; claws stout, curved,
obtuse.

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74

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75

SYEEHAPTES PAEADOXUS.

(PALLAS'S SAND-GROUSE.)

Tetrao paradoxa, Pall. Eeise Euss. Reichs, ii. App. p. 712, tab. F (1773).

Syrrhaptes, Illig. (Tetrao paradoxa, Pall.), Prodr. p. 243 (1811).

Syrrhaptes pallasii, Temra. Pig. et Gallin. iii. p. 282 (1815).

Heteroclitus tartaricus, Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xiv. p. 453 (1817).

Syrrhaptes paradoxus (Pall.), Licht. in Eversm. Reise nach Buchara, p. 134 (1823).

Syrrhaptes heteroclita, Vieill. Gal. des Ois. pt. iii. p. 64 (1825).

Syrrhapte paradoxal, French ; Fausthuhn, German; Steppehone, Danish.

Figures notabiles.

Temminck, PI. Col. 95 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 32. fig. 12 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 73.
fig. 4; Gould, B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 11 ; Radde, Reis. Siid. Ost-Sib. ii. pi. 2; Ibis, 1860,
pi. iv. ; Stevenson, B. of Norf. pi. 2.

c? ad. pileo et capitis lateribus aureo-flavis, fronte vix nigro striata : nucha, griseo-cervina, collo postico cano-
cervino plaga aurantiaca notato : corpore supra cum scapularibus arenaceo-ochraceis, nigro-fasciatis
uropygio fasciis angustioribus notato : remigibus primariis pallide cseruleo-canis, primo in pogonio
externo nigro et ad apicem valcle attenuato et elongato, sequentibus versus apicem attenuatis, primariis
intimis versus apicem nigris et ochraceo terminatis, secundariis in pogonio interno ocbraceis et extiis
nigris vix ocbraceo marginatis: tectricibus alarum arenaceo-ochraceis, marginibus nigro-guttatis,
tectricibus majoribus rufescente castaneo terminatis : supracaudalibus et rectricibus centralibus in
parte basali ochraceis caeruleo-cano notatis, his valde elongatis et attenuatis, versus apicem nigri-
cantibus, rectricibus reliquis schistaceo-cinereis albo terminatis et in pogonio interno ochraceo mar-
ginatis : mento pallide flavido ; gula suprema aurantiaca : corpore reliquo subtus cano-cervino, versus
crissum albido : abdomine plaga magnsi nigro fasciat& et plumis in pectore versus apicem nigro
transfasciatis fasciam formantibus : subcaudalibus nigris vix ochraceo notatis et conspicue albo mar-
ginatis : rostro pallide corneo : iride fusca : pedibus lanatis.

2 ad. capite et collo haud aurantiaco et flavo notatis, sed pileo et nucha nigro striatis, corpore supra magis
nigro variegato, tectricibus alarum ubique nigro guttatis, primario primo et rectricibus centralibus
minus elongatis, et corpore subtus sordidiore et grisescentiore quam in mare, gula nigro fasciata et
pectoris lateribus nigro guttatis.

Adult Male (Tientsin, December). Crown and sides of the head dull golden-yellow, the forehead slightly
striated with black; nape greyish buff; across the hind neck is a patch of golden-orange, which extends
upwards on each side, rest of the hind neck buffy dove-grey ; back and scapulars warm sandy ochreous,
boldly barred with black, the rump similarly coloured, but the bars are narrower; primary quills
delicate blue-grey, the outer ones much pointed, the first black on the outer web and having the tip
very long and attenuated, the inner primaries black towards the tip, and broadly terminated with warm

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76

ochreous ; secondaries ochreous on the inner web, and black on the outer web, slightly margined with
ochreous ; wing-coverts sandy ochreous, spotted with black along the edge of the wing, the larger
coverts terminated with deep fox-red, almost chestnut ; tail-coverts, and central rectrices on the basal
portion, warm ochreous marked with blue-grey, the central rectrices very much elongated and attenuated,
the terminal portion being blackish ; remaining rectrices dark slate-grey, broadly tipped with white, and
marked with warm ochreous on the margin of the inner web ; chin pale yellowish ; upper throat golden-
orange ; rest of the underparts delicate dove-buff with a grey tinge, fading to dull white on the lower
abdomen ; across the centre of the body is a broad black band, and the upper breast is crossed by a band
formed by the tips of the feathers being barred with black ; under tail-coverts black, slightly varied
with warm ochreous, and very broadly margined with white ; bill pale horn-colour ; iris dark brown ;
legs and feet covered with short, buffy white- feathers. Total length about 15 inches, culmen - 5,
wing 9 - 0, first primary extending 1 - 1 beyond the second, tail 7'6, central rectrices extending 36 beyond
the rest, tarsus 1 - 1.

Adult Female (Cologne) . Differs from the male in lacking the yellow and orange colour on the head and
neck, the crown and nape being striated with black ; the upper parts are more varied with black ; the
wing-coverts are spotted with black ; the first primary and central rectrices are much less elongated
than in the male ; the underparts are duller and greyer ; the upper throat crossed by a black band ; the
sides of the upper breast and neck are boldly spotted with black.

Young Male (Tientsin). Differs from the old male in having the yellow on the head duller, the crown
marked with black ; the upper parts marked more as in the female ; the sides of the neck spotted with
black, and the band across the lower throat wanting.

An inhabitant of the Asiatic steppes, and found as far east as China, the present species has been
met with as a straggler in many parts of Europe. Professor Newton, in his comprehensive
article on the irruption of this species in 1863 (Ibis, 1864, pp. 185-222), gives details of 148
instances of its occurrence in that year, and estimates that the invading host which then visited
Europe could not well have numbered less than 700 individuals. Previous to 1863 it was
scarcely known as a European bird. Moschler (Naumannia, hi. p. 305) first recorded it as being
found in Europe, and included it in a list of the birds occurring at Sarepta, on the Lower Volga ;
and in 1859 several examples were obtained. One was obtained at Walpole St. Peter's, in
Norfolk, early in July ; a second near Tremadoc, in Wales, on the 9th of that month ; a third
near Hobro, in Jutland, on the 23rd of July; and a fourth near Landvoort, in Holland.
Besides these, Professor Newton (I. c.) states that one was obtained at New Romney, in Kent,
in November 1859 ; and in May, in the same year, a pair are stated to have been killed in
the Wilna Government, in Russia.

As Professor Newton has gone into such close details in his article above quoted, I need
only name the different localities enumerated by him where it was met with in 1863, and refer,
to his paper for fuller details. The largest number appear to have been recorded from England ;
in Norfolk and Suffolk alone about seventy specimens were obtained. The localities in
England enumerated by Professor Newton are Waxham, Winterton, Kessingland, Horsey,
Breydon, Thorpe, Alderton, Sizewell, Sherringham, Morston, Mersea, Dungeness, Lydd, Elmley,
Croxton, Elveden, Wangford, Holme, Methwold, Bexhill, Fordham, Pevensey, Eastbourne, Saffron
Walden, Saltfleet, Alford, Swaffham Prior, Leake, Cottenham, Oakington, Barrington, Forest

77

Gate, Louth, Boston, Royston, Balcombe, North Burton, Barnet, Bridlington, Peterborough,
Skidby, Flotmanby, Whitby, Aldershot, Farnsfield, York, Teesmouth, Whitburn, Sheffield,
Farsley, Cowpen, Thropton, Ryton, Embleton, Ross Links, Belford, Berwick-on-Tweed, Imber,
Eccleshall, Kilcot, Warrington, Ludlow, Penrith, Oswestry, Leasowe, Walney, Slapton, Heanton,
Haverfordwest, Land's End, St. Agnes. In Ireland it was recorded from Balbriggan, Boss,
Drumbeg, and Naran ; and in Scotland from Muchalls, Hoylake, Stirling, Dornoch, Renfrew-
shire ; and from Unst, in the Shetland Isles.

It was met with as far north as the Faeroes ; for one was found dead in the sea late in May,
near Thorshavn, two males were killed in June, and two others were obtained at the same time,
but not shot ; and they remained on the island as late as September. Mr. R. Collett says (Norg.
Fugle, p. 44) that "it appeared in flocks in the southern and western portions of Norway in the
summer and autumn of 1863, and several specimens were obtained. A flock of fourteen to
fifteen individuals was first observed at Mandel about the middle of August, out of which two
were shot and sent by Dr. Roscher to the University Museum. Subsequently specimens were
shot at Oieren and in Lauerdal ; along the west coast five were shot in Lindaas, in Nordhordland,
north of Bergen, and two on the Nordfjord, in 62° N. lat." Professor Sundevall says that it also
occurred in Sweden in 1863. Two were shot in July at Sandsjo,near Filipstad; and on the 10th
November three were seen on the east coast of Southern Oland, one of which was shot by
Mr. C. G. Kindberg. According to Bernhardt one was obtained on Gottland ; and two more are
recorded in the Jag. Forb. Tidskrift, 1864 ; and Mr. Wheelwright stated in a letter to the
' Field ' that three were shot at Nykoping in May 1863. I do not find any record of its occur-
rence in Finland. Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that it has been once obtained near Moscow, in
1863, and that there is, according to Mr. Oulianin, a specimen in the Museum at Archangel
which was killed near that town. There is also a specimen in the collection of Mr. Heinrichs
which was shot in 1863 near Archangel. In North Germany it appears to have occurred in
many localities during the irruption of 1863. Professor Newton (I. c.) enumerates many
instances of its having been met with; and Hintz records (J. f. O. 1864, p. 194) the occurrence
of one between Belgard and Coslin. Mr. A. Benzon informs me that the first were met with in
Denmark on the 23rd July, 1859, and in 1863 it appeared in flocks, and some bred there.
Professor Newton gives (I. c.) some interesting extracts respecting the breeding-habits as observed
there, which I transcribe below. In Heligoland it appears to have been numerous in May and
June ; and nearly thirty were shot in the former month, and five in the latter. A large flock was
observed in the autumn on Norderney ; and flocks of from fifteen to one hundred appeared on the
21st May, on Borkum, where none were seen from the 23rd June to the 1st July, when large
flocks returned, and until September examples were observed and obtained there. In Holland
and Belgium it appears to have occurred in many localities ; and, according to Heer Crommelin,
it is said to have bred in the vicinity of Harlem : Professor Newton give the following localities
where it has occurred, viz. Groningen, Weert, Rocour, Velzen, Landvoort, Nordwijk, Wasse-
naar, St. Quentin, Lille, Ostend, Bergues, and Somme. Messrs. Degland and Gerbe say that in
1863 it was generally distributed throughout the basins of the Seine, the Loire, the Gironde, and
the Rhone, in the Departments of the Somme and the Aube from June to September, in Vendee
in November, and near Metz, on the Moselle, in February 1864. Mr. Howard Saunders informs

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78

me that there is an adult specimen in the Museum of Perpignan obtained in the market of that
town on the 18th October, 1859. In Italy the first were obtained in May 1863, near Predazzo,
when one out of a flock of ten or twelve was shot by an Austrian officer near Belluno ; a second
was brought to the market of Treviso ; another was taken near Rimini, and one near Carpigiano,
in the Modenese. In 1864 one was obtained near Friuli, in January, and one at Novara about the
middle of February. In Sicily it has not occurred ; for Mr. Howard Saunders writes to me that
he was in error in citing it as having been obtained near Syracuse, the mistake having arisen in
transcribing his rough notes, in which only the vernacular name had been written, the bird
referred to being a male Pterocles alchata. According to Dr. Anton Fritsch several were killed
in Bohemia, chiefly in the southern portions : the first was obtained at Dobris, and another at
one of the gates of Prague. There are several instances on record of its occurrence in Austria.
Bitter von Tschusi-Schmidhofen informs me that Pfarrer Jukovits obtained a male in May and a
female in June 1863 near the Neusiedler lake, and in January 1864 a third specimen ; others
were observed in February and March. A watcher killed a female out of a flock of four on the
15th of May, 1863, near Augezd, at Sokolnitz (Moravia): in the ovarium were eggs as large as
a pea; and the stomach contained barley and other unknown seeds. In 1864 about twenty were
seen near Brody (Galicia), and three shot, which are now in the collection of Count Dzieduszycki.
Three were killed at Neumarkt, and one flew against the telegraph-wires and broke its wing.

The above-quoted localities are, so far as I can ascertain, those where the present species
"has hitherto been met with, chiefly during the curious irruption which took place in 1863, the
cause of which is quite unknown, and can only be surmised. As, however, so large a number of
individuals appear to have then visited Europe, it may be taken for granted that many were killed
of which no record was obtained, and the area over which the present species then spread itself
may probably have been more extensive than is above stated.

The true home of Pallas's Sand-Grouse is the large sandy steppes of Asia, where it is met with
as far east as China. First described by Pallas from examples sent alive by Rytschkoff from near
Dshidel-mamut, in the Kirghis steppes, it was subsequently sent from the great steppes of Gobi ;
and in 1856 Dr. G. Radde met with it when collecting in South-eastern Siberia, and was the first
to publish an account of its nidification and general habits, a translation of which I give below.
Severtzoff states that it is resident in North-eastern Turkestan ; and Pere David says that it breeds
in Mongolia and visits the plains of Pekin either during severe winters or when there is much
snow in Central Asia; and Mr. Swinhoe writes (Ibis, 1861, p. 341) respecting its occurrence in
North China as follows : — " Your readers will be both surprised and delighted to hear of the
abundant occurrence of this species during the winter about the plains between Peking and
Tientsin. Flocks of hundreds constantly pass over with a very swift flight, not unlike that of
the Golden Plover, for which we at first mistook them. The market at Tientsin was literally
glutted with them, and you could purchase them for a mere nothing. The natives called them
' Sha-chee,' or Sand-fowl, and told me they were mostly caught in clap-nets. After a fall of snow
their capture was greatest ; for where the net was laid the ground was cleared and strewed with
small green beans ; the cleared patch was almost sure to catch the eyes of the passing flocks,
who would descend and crowd into the snare. It only remained then for the fowler, hidden at a
distance, to jerk the strings, and in his haul he would not unfrequently take the whole flock.

79

Numbers, however, were shot with matchlocks. When on the ground they were rather shy and
difficult of approach ; but on the wing they would sometimes dart within a few yards of you.
They possess rather a melodious chuckle, the only note that I have heard them utter. The
natives say that, during the summer, they are found abundantly in the great plains of Tartary
beyond the Great Wall, where they breed in the sand." Some most interesting notes respecting
the occurrence of the present species in Mongolia and on its habits have been lately published by
Colonel Prjevalsky. This gentleman says that the pi'esent species is one of the most charac-
teristic birds of Mongolia, inhabiting not only the steppes, but the true desert. In summer it
ranges north beyond Lake Baikal, and breeds there ; but it winters in the Gobi desert, in places
which are bare of snow, and in Alashan, where he constantly met with them from the middle of
October, sometimes in flocks of several thousand individuals. These enormous flocks feed
principally on the seeds of Agriofliyllum gobicum ; so that the number of those that remain
there to winter depends greatly on the crop of these seeds ; but they occasionally feed also on
other seeds and berries. In the early morning about sunrise they leave their roosting-places and
start for the desert in search of food, flying very low, forming a long line. They fly with great
swiftness, and make a peculiar sound with their wings, so that one can hear a large flock at a
great distance, the noise made somewhat resembling the whistling of the wind. When flying, the
male frequently utters a peculiar note, somewhat resembling the syllables truck-turuck, truck-
turuck ; but he observed that when packed in large flocks the males do not call, but only when
a few individuals are flying together. Occasionally these small flocks rise high into the air,
single individuals now and again swooping down to the ground to rise again and rejoin the rest,
as Rooks do when on passage. When feeding, the entire flock settles down, and after forming a
line the birds run forward slowly and clumsily, taking very short steps and waddling from side
to side. The tracks which they make in the sand resemble those of small mammals, and cover
the sandy deserts of Alashan. After their morning feed they leave to drink, visiting some small
pool or salt lake ; but they prefer the fresh to the salt water. At their drinking-places as well as
their feeding-places, before they settle down, they describe a circle in the air, so as to be assured
that there is no danger. They drink very quickly, and rise again at once ; so that when the flocks
are large those in front fly up before the birds in the rear have time to alight. They have
favourite drinking-places, and will traverse many miles to visit them, especially between nine
and ten o'clock in the forenoon ; but after noon they seldom visit these places. Mr. Prjevalsky
also met with some wintering in the Hoangho valley and throughout South-eastern Mongolia, as
also near Kalgan ; but when the frost is severe or much snow falls these birds appear in the
vicinity of Peking and Tien-tsin, but leave again for South-eastern Mongolia directly mild
weather sets in. On the whole these birds wander more in the winter than they do in the
summer, probably to obtain warmth. In the spring a portion leave for Northern Mongolia and
Lake-Baikal basin, whilst the rest remain to breed at their old winter quarters.

Pallas's Sand-Grouse does not construct any nest, but the eggs are deposited on the sand,
sometimes without any hole being scratched in the ground, but at others a few grass-bents are
made use of to line the nest. Early in June Mr. Prjevalsky found three nests in Alashan, each
of which contained three eggs: one clutch was quite fresh ; but the other two were much
incubated. The female does not sit closely, but leaves her eggs if any one approaches to within

80

twenty paces ; and when incubating they go to the drinking-places in large flocks, and leave their
eggs exposed to the weather during their absence. This species is very cautious and shy, even
though it is but little exposed to pursuit by man ; and though its plumage assimilates so closely
to the ground it frequents, it does not trust to concealment when exposed to danger, but
immediately seeks safety in flight long before one can approach within gunshot-range, and
seldom alights until it has traversed a considerable distance. Falco hendersoni is the only
Raptor that persecutes the Sand-Grouse ; and even this swift Falcon cannot always capture them.
Mr. Prjevalsky further adds that he observed the present species near Kokonor and Zaidam, but
never in Kansu or Northern Thibet.

Dr. Radde appears to have been the first to publish correct information respecting the habits

and nidification of the present species of Sand-Grouse ; and as I know of no full translation of his

notes, I make no apology for translating them in extenso. This gentleman writes (Reis. im Siid.

v. O. Sib. ii. p. 292) as follows : — " The nest is very simple, and resembles those of the other

Sand-Grouse ; and several pairs usually breed in company. In the saline impregnated soil on

the Tarei-nor, usually on the ground, which has been dry for years, a small hole about 5 inches

in diameter is scratched out, and the edge is lined with a few salsola shoots and grasses ; but the

latter are frequently wanting. The eggs are four in number. . . . Syrrhaptes does not winter

regularly on the north-eastern edge of the elevated Gobi, except in very mild winters, but

arrives so early and breeds so soon after severe seasons, that it is a perfect paradox in this

respect. Probably after breeding a second time it shifts its habitat, and during the raw winter

months straggles to the southern border of the Gobi, in the low spurs of the northern portion of

the Himalaya range. On the 10th March, 1856, when at night the thermometer fell to 13°

Reaum., and at midday rose to 2°, the first flock of the present species arrived at the Tarei-nor.

They flew in close flocks like Plovers. In the spring these flocks are composed of four or six

pairs, as the birds have then paired ; but in the autumn more than a hundred collect together in

one flock. When on the wing they utter a very audible cry, from which their Mongol name

(Njupterjun) is derived ; and the pairs fly close together. A male, shot on the 17th March (O. S.),

had the testes as large as a cedar-nut ; and late in March eggs are to be found, for a female shot

on the 30th March had an egg ready for exclusion in her ovary. This Sand-Grouse breeds

twice, and sometimes three times in the season. On the 20th April I found fully formed

young in three eggs in one nest ; and the next day I took two fresh eggs. On the 14th May

I again found fresh eggs. The young are certainly able to shift for themselves when hatched,

and in this respect assimilate to the Gallinae rather than to the Columbidae, which latter the

present species in so many respects resembles. I first saw the young birds running after their

mother on the 30th April. In the morning, especially in the spring, they visit the fresh water

to drink regularly at the same hour. In April the time when they arrived was nine o'clock.

Single pairs arrived from different directions, calling, and were answered by those which had

already arrived, and which they then joined; and they stood on the edge of the water in a line,

usually eight to twelve together : but they did not remain there long ; for they soon left to feed.

They do not despise the young juicy shoots of the Salicornice, and regularly graze on these as the

Bustard does on some of the grasses. In the spring I found the crop and stomach full of the

seeds of the Salsola. During the summer they are fond of basking in the sun; and I then

81

generally found several pairs together. Like hens they scratch a hole in the greyish white salty
hillocks which cover large tracts on the banks of the Tarei-nor, and on which the salt plants
grow. I have often watched them resting in these places ; at first they run about as if searching
for something ; and then at about eleven o'clock, when it becomes hot, they rest, scratching a
hole in the ground, and, like barn-door fowls, working themselves in comfortably, the body being
inclined sideways, and the plumage, which is otherwise so smooth, being puffed out. They do
not place a sentinel, but sit quietly, their plumage assimilating so well with the soil that they
can scarcely be distinguished. When disturbed they rise uttering a cry, and fly off like an
arrow propelled from a bow ; and all that hear the alarm-cry at once take flight also, even if not
belonging to the same flock. One then sees them pack together, then divide into small flocks
again, and by degrees again take to their resting-places. So swift are they on the wing that it
is scarcely possible for the swiftest Falcon to catch them ; and their flight is swifter and straighter
than that of a Pigeon. I doubt, however, if they can run far, as when I have been watching
them they ran swiftly but not for any distance. It is curious how the large flocks migrate away
in the summer ; I myself had a peculiar instance of this from personal observation. Late in
May I went to visit the Aral Island, in the Tarei-nor, and had to pass the large tract where the
lake was dried out ; and in the forenoon I saw a number of flocks of Sand-Grouse, which inhabited
this place and were so shy that I could not possibly approach them. After many unsuccessful
attempts to shoot them, I gave up the chance till the evening. At sunset they had collected
into two large flocks of at least a thousand individuals each, and were making a great noise ; and
it was now impossible to approach them. After being several times disturbed they left the
shores of the Tarei-nor and went to the neighbouring wintering-place of the flocks, where, from
the numerous droppings, there was always a large blackish brown patch on the sterile steppe.
Here they remained undisturbed, as the darkness prevented me from following them ; but they
continued calling loudly. On the next day not one was to be seen ; and later on I did not see-
one. The herdsmen also assured me that there were no Sand-Grouse left, but that they would
return in the autumn ; and such proved to be the case. In October, when hunting JEquus hemionus
and Antilojye gutturosa north of the Dalai-nor, a large noisy flock passed me, travelling from the
south to the north. Here on the north-east of the Gobi, if they remain in the autumn, the
natives calculate on a mild winter. From the foregoing one can see that the name paradoxus is

a very suitable one for this bird The flesh of this Sand-Grouse is white and very good. In

the interior of Mongolia it is said to be so common that the Cossack guard that convoys the
missionaries to Pekin live chiefly on these birds during the journey."

Four eggs of the present species taken by Dr. G. Eadde, now in my collection, do not vary
much, inter se. They are stone-buff or ochreous-buff in colour, marked with pale purplish brown
shell-blotches and dark brown surface-spots, which are somewhat sparingly scattered over the
surface of the shell ; in one some of the markings are contorted in hieroglyphic shape. In size
they vary from If £ by 1^- to Iff by 1^ inch.

As above stated, the present species nested in Denmark during the irruption which took place
in 1863; and some interesting details were published by Professor Reinhardt, and by him com-
municated to Professor Newton (Ibis, 1864, p. 195). From these I extract the following, viz. : —
"Early in June last (1863), Herr Bulow, an officer in the Custom-House at Bingkjobing, sent the

82

8

Professor several living birds which had been snared by a gunner on their nests in the above-
mentioned district, together with four of their eggs. One of the latter was found by Herr
Bulow in the box which conveyed the birds, having been laid on the journey. It was colourless,
indicating that it had been prematurely produced. The other three eggs were fully coloured.
It appears that this gunner found two nests of the Syrrhaptes in his own neighbourhood, and a
third at a place called Bierregaard. On two of the nests both the birds (in each case the hens
first and then the cocks) were caught, on the 6th June. These nests were near one another ; and
one, containing three eggs, consisted of a slight depression in the sand, lined with a little dry
marram. The other had only two eggs, was placed among some ling, and furnished in a like
manner. The third nest was similar to the first, and was halfway up a sandhill. Of the three
eggs sent to Herr Bulow, he found that two were quite fresh, but in the third the foetus had
begun to form, showing that they had been taken from different nests. Some more nests were
found by other people, but unfortunately none of them were taken care of. The gunner, at
Herr Bulow's request, made further search, but not until the 27th of July did he succeed in
making any new discoveries. On that day he met with a flock of about a dozen birds, of which
he shot two. He then went again to Bierregaard, where at last he put a bird off its nest among
some stones in the sand, and containing three eggs. Next day he returned to it, and set a snare,
in which, after two or three hours, the hen bird was caught ; and a few hours later, having reset
the snare, he procured the cock in the same way. In the interval he found, to his surprise, that
one of the eggs had been hatched. He took away with him the pair of old birds, the newly born
chick, and the remaining tAvo eggs, which, on getting home, he put in a box of wool by the fire,
where a second egg was hatched. The third proved to be rotten. The chicks only lived one day ;
and it seems they were not preserved. On that same day (the 28th), while waiting about for
these birds to be caught, he stumbled on another nest, from which he shot both owners."

The specimens figured are a male from the collection of Mr. R. Swinhoe, in the foreground,
and a female from my own collection in the background.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E litis. H. E. Dresser.

a, 2 ■ Near Cologne, 1863.

a, 6 , b, 2 . Turkestan {Severtzoff) .

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

E Mm. R. Swinhoe.
a, 6 ad., b, 6 juv. Tien-tsin, China, December 1860 (R. S.).

83

Order II. GALLING.
Family PHASIANIM.

Genus PHASIANUS.
Phasianus, Brisson, Orn. i. p. 262.

The Pheasants inhabit the Palaearctic Eegion, one species only being found in the Western Pate-
arctic Region ; but of late years so many other species of Pheasants have been introduced into
preserves and crossed with the common Pheasant, that it is difficult to obtain pure-bred birds,
except in the extreme south-eastern portion of the Eegion. They frequent groves and woods,
especially where there are cultivated fields in the immediate vicinity, and feed on seeds, fruits,
insects, &c, obtaining their food to a large extent by scratching, like the domestic fowls. They
fly well, though not very swiftly, and when rising they do so rather noisily. They roost on trees,
frequently at a considerable height above the ground ; and the cock birds usually utter their loud
crowing note when they fly up to their roosting-place. They walk with ease, and often traverse
considerable distances on foot when wandering about in search of food. They are polygamous ;
and fierce combats often take place between the males for the possession of the females. The
nest is a depression in the soil, in some well-sheltered place, lined with grass, leaves, roots, &c. ;
and the eggs, which are numerous, are pale olivaceous brown in colour. The young birds when
hatched are covered with close short down, and are able to run about almost immediately.

Phasianus colchicus, the type of the genus, has the bill strong, short, deeper than broad at
the base, depressed at the end ; nostrils linear, oblong, slightly recurved, placed in the lower and
fore part of the nasal membrane, which is thick, vaulted, and smooth ; eyelids and a large space
round the eye, extending to the bill, bare and covered with small cutaneous papillae, with a few
plumules here and there ; wings short, broad, rounded, the first quill about equal to the eighth,
the fourth and fifth longest, the secondaries nearly as long as the primaries; tail very long,
much graduated, composed of eighteen feathers ; legs strong, the tarsus moderately long, stout,
scutellate, furnished behind with a short, conical, straight spur ; hind toe small ; anterior toes
strong, united at the base by thick webs ; claws moderate, arched, flat beneath, moderately
sharp ; oesophagus (as is the case with all the gallinaceous birds) enlarged into a crop of con-
siderable size, which lies over the fore part of the neck and thorax.

162

84

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O. -

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i
a.

85

PHASIANUS COLCHICUS.

(PHEASANT.)

Phasianus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 262 (1760).

Phasiaiius varius, Briss. torn. cit. p. 267, pi. xxv. fig. 3 (1760).

Phasianus colchicus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 271 (1766).

Le Faisan, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 328 (1771).

Phasianus marginatus, Wolf, Taschenb. deutsch. Vogelk. i. p. 291 (1810).

Faisan, French ; Fagiano, Italian ; Edelfasan, German.

Figurm notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 121, 122 ; Frisch, Yog. Deutschl. taf. 123, 124 ; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 162; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 74. fig. 2; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 247;
id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 12 ; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. pi. 57; Elliot, Monogr. Phas. ii. pi. 2.

c? ad. pileo viridi-nigro : collo superiore nigro, purpureo violaceo nitente, coilo imo et dorsi plumis aurantiacis
nigro margin atis et notatis, scapularibus et plumis in dorso imo magis aeneo-rufescentibus et cervino
notatis : remigibus fuscis ochraceo transfasciatis : tectricibus alarum olivaceo-aurantiacis seneo-purpureo
et ochraceo variegatis ; uropygio et supracaudalibus rufescentibus purpureo tinctis : cauda olivaceo-
aurantiaca nigro transfasciata, rectricibus centralibus rufescente seneo marginatis : pectore et hypo-
chondriis aurantiacis nigro marginatis : abdomine centraliter cseruleo-nigro : rostro corneo-albo, parte
nuda in faciei lateribus coccinea : pedibus fuscis : iride saturate fusca.

5 ad. corpore supra cum capite et collo ochraceo-cervinis, nigro et nigro-fusco notatis et fasciatis : collo et
pectore vix vinaceo tinctis : corpore subtiis ochraceo-cervino, nigricanti vermiculato et sparse eodem
colore notato : rectricibus centraliter nigro-fuscis, ochraceo et fulvido variegatis, et lateraliter ochraceis
nigricanti vermiculatis : capitis lateribus haud nudis.

Adult Male (Ismidt, 20th January). Crown and nape black, richly glossed with bottle-green; sides of the
head, except the bare portion, chin, and upper throat and neck blackish, richly glossed with violet-
purple; feathers on the lower neck, breast, and fore part of the back black on the basal portion, then
rufescent golden, margined with black, many having an apical black spot ; on the scapulars and rest of
the back the golden hue deepens into coppery purple, and most of the feathers have a central horse-
shoe-shaped buff mark ; quills dark brown, slightly barred with ochreous buff; wing-coverts golden
olivaceous, varied with coppery purple and ochreous ; rump and upper tail-coverts rich fiery reddish,
glossed with purple ; tail golden-olivaceous with central bars of black, the central feathers margined
with fiery purple ; flanks like the breast, but more golden-orange in tinge ; centre of the abdomen
black with a bluish tinge ; bill pale whitish horn ; wattles on the sides of the head rich vermilion-red
or blood-red ; legs dull brown ; iris deep brown. Total length about 33 inches, culmen l - 2, wing 9 - 3,
tail 18"2, central rectrices 13 - 5, longer than the outside ones, tarsus 2'7.

Adult Female (Ismidt) . Upper parts generally black, the feathers broadly margined with clay-buff, the neck
washed with warm vinaceous; underparts clay- buff, vermiculated with blackish, the black bases of the

86

feathers showing through here and there, especially on the flanks and neck, which latter with the upper
breast is faintly washed with vinous ; chin clay-yellow ; quills and wing-coverts dark brown, richly
variegated with clay-buff; centre of tail-feathers blackish, variegated with ochreous and dull rufescent,
the rest of the feathers being dull clay-ochreous vermiculated with blackish ; sides of head feathered,
and not bare; bill browner than in the male; legs dull brown; iris deep brown.

Young. In their first-feather plumage the young of both sexes resemble the female ; but the young male
assumes the plumage of the old male in the autumnal moult, but at first the coloration of his plumage
is duller, and his tail is shorter than in the fully adult bird.

Young in down. Sides of the head, throat, and underparts yellowish white ; forehead dull rusty yellowish

with a dark brown central stripe, which broadens towards the nape ; behind the ear is a black spot ;

upper parts generally yellowish, variegated with rusty red and brown, and with blackish brown stripes ;

bill reddish white, brownish above ; legs yellowish white ; iris greyish.
When the young bird is eight or ten days old the quills commence to shoot out ; and the bird is soon able to

flutter along.

The present species is now tolerably widely distributed in temperate Europe, but almost every-
where in a nearly semiclomesticated state, except in the south-eastern countries, where it is in a
really wild condition ; and there alone the true species, without admixture of other blood, is to
be found. It is, however, a species which has been introduced by the agency of man ; and the
generally accepted tradition is that the Argonauts when returning from Colchis with the golden
fleece brought with them to Greece some live Pheasants, by which Greece was stocked with
these birds. This species has long been thoroughly acclimatized in Great Britain, having been,
so far as one can judge, introduced by the Romans; yet this is merely a conjecture, as there is
no direct evidence to show how and when it first came to our shores — though it was certainly
naturalized here prior to the Norman conquest; for Mr. Boyd Dawkins writes (Ibis, 1869,
p. 358) : — " It may interest your readers to know that the most ancient record of the occurrence
of the Pheasant in Great Britain is to be found in the tract ' De inventione Sanctse Crucis nostra?
in Monte Acuto et de ductione ejusdem apud Waltham,' edited from manuscripts in the British
Museum by Professor Stubbs, and published in 1861. The bill of fare drawn up by Harold for
the Canons' households of from six to seven persons, a.d. 1059, and preserved in a manuscript of
the date of circa 1177, was as follows (p. 16) : —

" ' Erant autem tales pitantae unicuique canonico : a festo Sancti Michaelis usque ad caput
jejunii (Ash Wednesday) aut xii merulse, aut ii agausese \_Agace, a Magpie f?) Ducange] aut ii
perdices, aut unus phasianus, reliquis temporibus aut ancse [Geese ; Ducange] aut gallinse.'

"Now the point of this passage is that it shows that Phasianus colchicus had become
naturalized in England before the Norman invasion; and as the English and Danes were not
the introducers of strange animals in any well-authenticated case, it offers fair presumptive
evidence that it was introduced by the Roman conquerors, who naturalized the Fallow Deer
in Britain.

" The eating of Magpies at Waltham, though singular, was not so remarkable as the eating
of horse by the monks of St. Galle in the time of Charles the Great, and the returning of thanks
to God for it : —

87

" ' Sit feralis equi caro dulcis sub cruce Christi !' The bird was not so unclean as the horse
— the emblem of Paganism — was unholy."

In the reign of Edward I. Pheasants were sold at eight pence per brace ; and I may remark
that, according to Mr. Robert Gray, the first mention made of the Pheasant in old Scots Acts is
in one dated 8th June 1594, in which, amongst other birds and beasts, the Pheasant is scheduled
as a protected species.

In Great Britain the Pbeasant is found in most large preserves, from the extreme south up
to Sutherland and the Outer Hebrides. Mr. Robert Gray says (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 224) that
it is commonly distributed throughout the western counties, extending from Sutherland to the
shores of Wigtown. In the neighbourhood of Loch Lomond it is occasionally seen on the
mountain-sides as high as 1200 feet. It was introduced into Lewis, in the Outer Hebrides,
by Sir James Matheson, and has become fairly established there. Other species have also been
introduced into Scotland, as for instance Phasianus versicolor and Phasianus reevesii ; and both
these have crossed with the present species, so that it is, as elsewhere, most difficult to find a
pure-blooded Phasianus colchicus.

In Ireland, according to Thompson, the Pheasant " is common in various wooded parts of
the island, where it has been preserved and protected. This species being neither an indigenous
one, nor a visitant to Ireland in a wild state, but having certainly been introduced, is therefore
disentitled to receive the honours of ordinary type. The period of its introduction is unknown
to me; but in the year 1589 it was remarked to be common. Fynes Moeyson, who was in
Ireland from 1599 till 1603, observes that there are 'such plenty of Pheasants as I have known
sixty served up at one feast, and abound much more with Pails, but Partridges are somewhat
scarce.' — Vol. ii. p. 368. Smith seems to have imagined that Pheasants were indigenous to the
island, as in his 'History of Cork' it is remarked, ' they are now (1749) indeed very rare, most
of our woods being cut down.' "

In Sweden and Norway the Pheasant is only found domesticated ; and it is known in Southern
Russia only, and not in Northern Russia or Poland. In North Germany it has become wild in
some few localities, but otherwise it is only met with in preserves ; and, according to Mr. Collin,
it is kept in a state of semidomestication at Kongelunden, on Amager, in Denmark. Naumann
says that it is now quite wild in several parts of Bohemia, on the Danube, the Rhine, and in the
lowlands of the Elbe, but that north of Central Germany it is found nowhere, unless preserved.
Dr. Rey informs me that it occurs here and there in an almost wild state in Saxony. According
to Baron Fallon it is acclimatized here and there in Belgium ; Mr. Labouchere informs me that
it thrives well in the drier portions of Holland ; and in France it is found in many preserves. I
do not find it recorded from Portugal or Spain ; and in Italy, Salvadori says, it is only to be met
with in a semidomesticated state, and never really wild ; and Mr. Jesse remarks that a few are
found on the east coast of Corsica. It is, however, wild in Greece ; but Dr. Kruper mentions
that it is now nearly extinct in the swamps of Acarnania, but is tolerably numerous in Olympus,
and is shot there annually.

In winter it is not uncommon in Macedonia, but only in the plains. ' Lord Lilford writes
(Ibis, 1860, p. 237): — "The only localities in which I have myself seen Pheasants in these parts
were: — once on the Luro river, near Prevesa, in March 1857, on which occasion I only saw one,
the bird having never previously been met with in that part of the country ; and again in

88

December of the same year, in the forests near the mouth of the river Drin, in Albania, where
it is comparatively common, and where several fell to our guns. In this latter locality the
Pheasant's habitat seems to be confined to a radius of from twenty to thirty miles to the north,
east, and south of the town of Alessio — a district for the most part densely wooded, and well
watered, with occasional tracts of cultivated ground, Indian corn being apparently the principal
produce, and forming, with the berries of the privet (which abounds throughout Albania), the
chief food of the present species. We heard many more Pheasants than we saw, as the woods
were thick and of great extent, our dogs wild, and we lost a great deal of time in making circuits
to cross or avoid the numerous small but deep streams which intersect the country in every
direction. This species is particularly abundant on the shores of the Gulf of Salonica, about the
mouth of the river Vardar ; and I have been informed, on good authority, that Pheasants are
also to be found in the woods of Vhrakori, in iEtolia, about midway between the Gulfs of
Lepanto and Arta."

As above stated, it is tolerably numerous in Southern Germany ; but Dr. Fritsch says that it
is not so common as it used to be, for in 1857 the total number shot in Bohemia was 50609,
whereas in 1864 it had dwindled to 39296. Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown say (Ibis, 1875,
p. 418) that it used formerly to be rather common in the preserves of some of the nobles of
Transylvania, but during the revolution of 1848 most were destroyed, and they are not certain
that it now exists there at all. According to Messrs. Elwes and Buckley (Ibis, 1870, p. 329), the
Pheasant " exists in a wild state in many parts of Turkey, especially in Macedonia and the north
of Albania. We found Pheasants chiefly in the marshy forests of the plains; but, owing to the
extreme density of the brambles, they were very difficult to flush, and, when put up by the dogs,
would sometimes fly into a. tree. A good many are found in the coverts round the foot of Mount
Olympus and the vale of Tempe ; but they are becoming scarcer. There cannot be many in
Roumelia ; for when they were required for the Sultan's aviaries, he sent to Salonica to have
them caught."

In Southern Russia, Mr. Artzibascheff says, the Pheasant is occasionally seen on the Sarpa,
but he himself never met with it ; and Professor Von Nordmann states that though it is not
found in a wild state in New Russia, it occurs along the eastern side of the Black Sea, and thence
eastwards down to the Caucasus. Mr. G. C. Taylor, however, says that he never saw it wild in
the Crimea. Asia Minor is the true home of the Pheasant ; and Mr. Pearse informs me that
large numbers are sent to the Constantinople market from Asiatic Turkey. It appears, however,
to be locally distributed there ; for Mr. Danford does not include it in his list, and Canon
Tristram remarks (Ibis, 1868, p. 212) that though he observed it wild near Ephesus, it does not
appear to be known in Syria. Menetries says that it is common in the Caucasus, near the Terek
and Soulak rivers, and even in the mountains of Bechtan, near the mineral waters of Petigorsk ;
and according to Mr. Blanford it abounds in the forests of the Caspian, and ranges through the
forest-region of Mazandaran as far east as the upper valley of the Gurgan. Travellers have
recorded it from the jungles of the Harirud valley, but do not appear to have seen it. In other
portions of Asia the present bird is replaced by many allied species, for particulars respecting
which I may refer my readers to Mr. Elliot's magnificent work, ' Monograph of the Phasianidse,'
in which are plates of almost all the known species, executed by Wolf.

The Pheasant, one of our best-known and most highly valued game-birds, is essentially an

89

inhabitant of the woodlands, though not of the true forest ; for it affects groves where there are
small patches covered with low bushes and tangled herbage here and there, hazel coppices, and
non-evergreen patches of woodland where it is not too dry, and also swampy localities in the
woods ; but one seldom sees them on bleak open hill-sides or in the pine-forests, unless, as
Naumann remarks, to seek shelter from severe weather. Places where there are cornfields near
are especially suitable to this species ; for it thrives exceedingly well where it can find an abun-
dance of food near its woodland haunts. It is, as a rule, found on the ground, where it wanders
about in search of food, usually in places where the undergrowth is tolerably close ; but in the
heat of the day it is fond of sunning and dusting itself, like our domestic fowl. It scratches a
good deal where the soil is suitable, and picks the insects and seeds out of the ground as it turns
them up. When undisturbed it steps sedately and quietly along, the long tail being held almost
horizontal or slightly elevated, the head rather erect, and the ear-tufts invisible ; but directly its
suspicions are excited, and it apprehends danger, these tufts are at once erected, and are very
easily discernible even at some distance. When it takes alarm it stretches its neck, erects its
tail somewhat, and usually runs for a short distance before taking wing, dropping again into the
cover after it has flown a short distance, and seldom flying far.

In the spring of the year the cock Pheasant's pairing-note or crow may frequently be heard,
usually in the early morning, when he flies down from his roost and calls the females round him.
This crow or call somewhat resembles the feeble attempts of a domestic cock, and is followed,
not preceded, by a clapping of the wings.

The Pheasant is polygamous ; and in the spring of the year desperate combats often take
place for the possession of the females, for the cock Pheasant is extremely pugnacious. When
making advances towards the females this bird, like the common cock, depresses and opens its
wing nearest to the hen bird, the tail being expanded and thrown sideways, the ear-tufts being
greatly erected, and the bright-red skin round the eye being swollen and much more extended
than at other seasons of the year.

The usual note of the Pheasant is a tolerably loud call, like the words cock-cock-cock, which
is almost always uttered when the bird suddenly flies up into a tree, and when it takes up its
quarters for the night ; and on a quiet evening one can, without any great difficulty, count the
number of cocks in a small plantation, and even ascertain the trees on which they roost.

The food of the Pheasant varies greatly according to the season of the year. In the winter
it feeds chiefly on grain and seeds of various kinds, insects of almost all sorts being added to its
bill of fare as soon as the spring opens ; in the summer it devours insects, the tender shoots of
plants, &c. &c, fruits of various kinds as they ripen ; and in the autumn it feeds on ripe seeds,
berries, &c. &c. Amongst the vegetable substances it feeds on I may enumerate grain of various
kinds, wheat, buckwheat, lentils, oats, barley, rape-seed, peas, linseed, the seeds of many sorts
of grasses &c. (such as Panicum, Polygonum aviculare, P. dumetorum, P. convolvulus, various
species of Melampyrum), acorns, beech-mast, the seeds of the hemp nettle (Gcdeojpsis), the tender
shoots of grasses, clover, cabbages, pimpernel, young peas, the roots of the common silver weed
(Potentilla anserina), the tubers of the common buttercup and pilewort (Ranunculus iulbosus
and Ranunculus ficaria), the yellow flowers of the latter plant, berries of many kinds, such as
the hawthorn (Crataegus), mulberries, currants, brambles, red and black elderberries, mistletoe-

5n2

90

berries. Fruits it will eat readily, such as wild strawberries, plums, apples, pears, raspberries ;
and amongst the insects it devours are may-bugs, grasshoppers, beetles of various kinds, spiders,
flies, larvae of different sorts, the small excrescences on the underside of the leaves of the oak, so-
called spangles, wire worms (of which as many as twelve hundred have been found in the crop of
a hen Pheasant) ; and this bird has been known to eat a slowworm.

As above stated, the Pheasant is polygamous, an old and strong cock having a harem of
from six to nine females, though at first he will sometimes commence by keeping company with
one hen, from which circumstance the older naturalists have in error concluded that it lives, as
a rule, in monogamy. When the female wants to lay she withdraws to some quiet place, where,
in the dense grass-growth of a thicket, in an old hedgerow, or in a field near a covert, she
scratches a depression in the soil, which is lined with dried grasses, roots, and leaves, and in this
deposits from eight to twelve eggs. Occasionally two females will have one nest in common ;
and an instance is cited by Mr. Tegetmeier of a Pheasant and a Partridge having such a nest,
the eggs of the two species being laid indiscriminately together ; and both birds were found
sitting side by side in perfect amity. Occasionally, though very rarely, the hen Pheasant will
lay in the deserted nest of an Owl or a Squirrel ; but, as a rule, it is a ground-breeder. When
the young are hatched they are very carefully tended by the old bird, and fed chiefly on insects,
the larvae of ants, so-called ants' eggs being a particularly favourite article of food, the old female
placing them before the young ones and encouraging them to pick them up like a domestic hen.
When first hatched they are very tender, and require great care on the part of the mother, who
collects them and covers them during bad weather and at night ; but when about half-grown they
are able to fly up and roost on a branch with the old bird.

The present species, as above stated, not only breeds freely with other allied Pheasants, but
it has been known also to cross with the domestic Fowl, the Guineafowl, the Black Grouse ; and,
according to Edwards, it has paired with the Turkey. The birds which are known amongst
sportsmen by the name of Mule Pheasants, however, are not hybrids but barren hen birds, either
very old birds or else those suffering from a disease or derangement of the generative organs,
which have to a larger or less extent assumed the dress of the male bird. I possess two, and
have examined several more, of these barren hens, all of which differed a good deal in beauty
of plumage, one being almost as richly coloured and marked as the adult male.

The eggs of the Pheasant are uniform pale olivaceons brown in colour, and average about
Iff by 1£$ inch.

The specimens figured are an adult pair obtained especially for me in Asia Minor by
Mr. Pearse of Constantinople; for, after considerable trouble, I found that I could not get a
specimen here in England without some admixture of one of the allied species. The specimen
nearest to the really wild bird is one I received from Captain Elwes, which differs only in having
the markings rather broader and bolder, especially on the upper parts.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

• E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 , b, 2 . Near Ismid, Asia Minor, January 20th, 1878 (C. Pearse). c, d ad. Colesbourne Park, November
20th, 1870 {H. J. Elwes). d, ? steril. Leadenhall Market, October 1875. e, 2 steril. Middleton Hall,
T amworth {Ha nbury- Barclay ) .

91

Genus CACCABIS.

Perdix apud Brisson, Orn. i. p. 236 (1760).
Tetrao apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 276 (1766).
Caccabis, Kaup, Naturl. Syst. p. 183 (1829).
Alectoris apud Kaup, op. cit. p. 180 (1829).
Chacura apud Hodgson, Madr. Journ. 1837, p. 505.
Pyctes apud Hodgson in Gray's Zool. Misc. p. 85 (1844).

The Bed-legged Partridges inhabit the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental Begions, four species
inhabiting the Western Palsearctic Begion. They resemble the common Partridge in habits
more than any of their allies, frequenting cultivated ground, fields, &c. ; but some species are
more frequently found in rugged mountainous localities, especially where there is close low
scrub. They are very swift on foot ; and when disturbed they prefer to run, or even to squat, in
preference to taking wing. They fly, however, extremely fast when once on the wing, and will
frequently traverse considerable distances. They have also a peculiar habit of flying up into a
tree ; and a covey may occasionally be seen sitting in a row on a fence or the roof of a barn.
They feed on grain, seeds, fruit, and insects of various kinds, and often obtain their food by
scratching. They are also partial to dusting themselves in sandy soil, and to basking in the
sun.

They nest on the ground, making a depression in the soil in some well-concealed place,
which they line with grasses, leaves, and sometimes with feathers, and deposit numerous buff-
coloured eggs slightly marked with pale red.

Caccabis rufa, the type of the genus, has the bill short, stout, straight to the nostrils, then
decurved to the point, which is rounded and thin-edged ; nostrils basal, lateral, covered above
with an exposed oblong horny operculum, the nasal groove broad and feathered ; eyelids and a
very small space behind the eye bare ; wings moderately long, broad, the first quill shorter than
the fifth, the third longest; tail moderately short, rounded; legs moderate; tarsus anteriorly
scutellate and without any spur behind ; anterior toes long, united at the base, the outer and
inner ones about equal in length ; hind toe small ; claws moderately long, slightly curved,
moderately sharp.

163

92

470

GREEK PARTRIDGE.

CACCABIS SAXATIUS

9-

sJ

CACCABIS SAXATILIS.

(GREEK PARTRIDGE.)

Perdix grceca, Briss. Orn. i. p. 241 (1760, partim).

Tetrao rufus, Scop. Ann. I. Hist. Nat. p. 120 (1769, nee Linn.).

Le Bartavelle ou Perdrix grecque, Buff'. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 420 (1771).

Perdix saxatilis, Meyer, Vog. Deutschl. part viii. (1805).

Caccabis, Kaup (Perdix saxatilis, Meyer), Natiirl. Syst. p. 183 (1829).

Perdix rupestris, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 522 (1831).

Chacura grceca, G. R. Gray, List of Gen. of B. p. 79 (1841).

Caccabis grceca, G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, iii. p. 508 (1849).

1 Caccabis saxatilis (Meyer), W. H. Simpson, Ibis, 1860, p. 388.

Bartavelle, French; Steinhuhn, Berghuhn, German; Gotornice, Italian.

Figures notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 231; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 261. fig. 2; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 164; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 116.

6 ad. fronte, plumis circum basin rostri et stria magna per oculos ducta et in gula ima, confluente nigris :
pileo cano, in parte frontali et lateraliter fere albo : nucha cana, vix cervino tincta, : corpore supra
caerulescenti-cano, dorso vinaceo lavato : remigibus saturate fuscis, primariis in pogonio externo versus
apicem fere omnino ochraceis, secundariis extus albicante ochraceo marginatis, secundariis intimis dorso
concoloribus sed brunneo vix lavatis : tectricibus alarum minoribus vinaceo marginatis : rectricibus
centralibus caeruleseenti-canis, reliquis ferrugineis, ad basin caerulescenti-canis : mento et gula, albis :
pectore cserulescenti-cano, plumis vix cervino marginatis : abdomine et subcaudalibus ochraceis : hypo-
chondrias caeruleo, nigro et albo variis et castaneo apicatis : rostro et pedibus rubris : iride fusca.

2 ad. mari similis sed minor et paullo sordidior.

Adult Male (Naples, loth February). Forehead, feathers at the base of the bill all round, and a broad stripe
passing through and behind the eye, down the sides of the neck, where it broadens and meets in front,
black ; crown blue-grey, or dove-blue, nearly pure white round the margin, where it meets the black, and
on the nape tinged with vinous buff; upper parts dove-blue, on the back washed with warm vinous, the
lesser wing-coverts margined with this latter colour ; quills dark brown, the outer web of the primaries
towards the tip almost entirely warm ochre, secondaries margined externally with yellowish white ; the
inner secondaries and scapulars coloured like the rest of the upper parts, but washed with buffy brown ;
central rectrices dove-blue, the remainder deep fox-red, and blue only on the basal portion, which is
covered by the tail-coverts ; chin and throat inside the black band white ; breast dove-blue, the feathers
slightly edged with pale buff; abdomen and under tail-coverts warm ochre-yellow; feathers on the
flanks dove-blue, then crossed by a black band, then white, and terminated by a black band slightly
tipped with chestnut-red ; legs, bill, and edge of the eyelid coral-red ; iris dark brown. Total length
about 14 inches, culmen 085, wing 6-4, tail 39, tarsus F7.

94

Adult Female (Naples, 15th February). Closely resembles the male above described, but is a trifle smaller,
and lacks the knob on the hind part of the tarsus.

Young (Switzerland) . Resembles the adult, but is duller, the collar is much narrower, the upper parts are
much darker and browner, and there are traces of bars on the tail ; the feathers on the flanks are also
much less richly coloured.

Young in down (Barcelonette). Crown and nape reddish, marked with dark brown; an indistinct dark patch
behind the eye ; upper parts blackish brown, variegated with reddish brown and white ; sides of the
head, throat, and underparts white, tinged with buff on the abdomen.

Obs. So far as I can gather, Perdix labatiei of Bouteille (Orn. du Dauphine, ii. Add. p. 337, 1844) is nothing
but a hybrid between the Greek Partridge and the common Redleg, a view which is taken by Messrs.
Degland and Gerbe, and several other authors.

It is somewhat difficult to determine the precise limits of the range of this Partridge, because
in Eastern Europe it is replaced by a closely allied though distinct species, Caccabis chukar,
which latter is the. common Red-legged Partridge of Asia Minor. The present species appears
to inhabit only the elevated mountain-ranges of Southern Europe. It is stated by Messrs.
Degland and Gerbe to inhabit the Pyrenees ; but it is not included by Colonel Irby as occurring
in Spain, and Lord Lilford writes (Ibis, 1866, p. 348) that he could not hear of it in any part
of that country ; it is well possible, however, that it may occur in some of the mountain districts
of Spain. Baron J. W. von Miiller states that it is found in Provence, but is much rarer than
the common Redleg. In Switzerland it is common ; but Bailly writes that though formerly so
numerous in Savoy, it has become rather rare than otherwise. Messrs. Meisner and Schinz say
(Vog. der Schweiz, p. 162) that it is a true alpine bird, inhabiting the entire range of the Swiss
Alps in the more elevated regions, and never visits the subalpine regions, and is, they add,
unknown in the Jura; but Bailly states that it inhabits both the Jura and the Basses- Alpes.
In Italy it is found in the Italian Alps, in the Apennines, and in the mountains of Sicily ;
in fact, as Count Salvadori states, it inhabits the entire mountainous regions of Italy, but
it is wanting in Sardinia and Malta. Mr. II. Benvenuti also states (Ibis, 1864, p. 228) that it
occurs in Tuscany. It likewise inhabits the Tyrol, where it is said to be not uncommon in
some localities, and is also found in the Styrian Alps. Seidensacher says that it inhabits the
Bacher, near Rakovic, near Weitenstein, but is rare ; and the Ritter von Tschusi-Schmidhofen
writes to me respecting its range as follows : — " In the more elevated mountain-ranges of Upper
Austria and Salzburg it is nowhere common. Hanf states that it is numerous in Upper Styria,
on the Grewenze and other Alps of Styria. In Southern Tyrol, according to Althammer, it
breeds commonly, but is less numerous in Northern Tyrol. Bruhin says that it breeds in the
Vorarlberg ; Von Hueber states that it also inhabits Carinthia (Karnthen) ; and Freyer records
it from Krain. Fritsch met with it not uncommonly near Flume, even in the lowlands ; and,
according to Stetter, it is found near Trieste." Count Casimir Wodzicki met with it in the
Tatra Mountains, Carpathian range, and adds that, according to Professor Zawadzki, it is a
well-known bird throughout the Mountains of Bukowina.

From the Austrian dominions it becomes difficult to trace the range of the present species ;

95

but, so far as I can ascertain, it appears to inhabit only the mainland of Greece, the Redleg of
the islands being Caccabis chukar — unless the bird which inhabits the Ionian Islands, of which I
have not been able to examine a specimen, is, as suggested to me by Lord Lilford, the present
species. Canon Tristram possesses an example of C. samtilis from the mainland of Greece ; and
I am indebted to Lord Lilford for the loan of his specimens from Cyprus, which are all referable
to the eastern species. As a rule the coloration of the throat has been held to be a distinctive
character : but tbis cannot be depended on ; for I find that the specimens of C. chukar brought
from Cyprus by Lord Lilford are, with one exception, nearly as white-throated as examples from
Italy, but they have the feathers at the base of the bill in front of the eye white, and are
undoubtedly referable to the eastern species. There is no doubt that the Eed-legged Partridge
which is found near Constantinople is not the present species, but Caccabis chukar ; so that this
latter bird certainly occurs in Europe proper.

In its habits the present species differs considerably from its allies; and, as its German
name of Steinhuhn or Eock-chick clearly indicates, it affects the stony serrated portions of the
mountains in preference to the fruitful valleys and lowlands inhabited by the common Redleg
and Barbary Partridge. Bailly says (Orn. de la Sav. iii. p. 469) that it " is found in arid rocky
elevated localities, especially those which are difficult of access, and only descends to the plains
or to the lower portions of the mountains during the time when its home is covered with snow,
or when driven down by severe cold, and is very rarely seen away from the higher portions of
the mountains during the breeding-season, When driven from its home by birds of prey or
by sportsmen it will descend, but after the lapse of a few hours will pass from height to height
until it reaches the most elevated localities.

" They pair in the month of March, and are extremely passionate and amorous. The males
challenge each other with loud cries, and will fight with the greatest fury for the possession
of a female, who becomes the prize of the conqueror. Quarrelsome and jealous to a degree,
they will sometimes fight with such perseverance and so blindly that they lose sight of all
caution, and may be shot down with ease. The call-note of the male resembles the syllables
Kakabi kakabet uttered several times in quick succession ; and it is varied by a note like the
words cok, cok, cokrro, likewise repeated. By imitating their call-note or that of the female they
may not only be easily approached within range, but frequently come to the gunner who is in
ambush calling them."

Its flight is heavier and effected with more noise than that of the common Partridge ; and it
seldom flies long distances, but soon drops on to the ground and seeks safety on foot, running
with great swiftness, and concealing itself amongst the stones or herbage. Naumann says that
in Switzerland the present species is said occasionally to seek safety by concealing itself amongst
the dense foliage of the fir trees.

As a rule it is a very tame and unsuspicious bird, easy to catch or shoot, and equally easy to
tame ; but, as above stated, it is quarrelsome to a degree during the breeding-season.

Its food consists of seeds of various kinds, tender shoots of herbs, and birds, and during the
summer to a large extent of insects of all kinds, coleoptera, grasshoppers, flies, ants, and ant-
larvae, as well as the larvae of many other kinds of insects. Should grain of any kind be planted
in the vicinity of the locality they inhabit, they pay frequent visits to the fields and take their

2z

96

share of the crop. Naumann says that during the more inclement portion of the year, when
other food is scarce, they will feed on the buds of the alpine rose (Rhododendron), as well as
those of the fir, pine, and larch, and berries of the juniper. The young birds when newly
batched are fed chiefly on ants and their larvae. Like the common Partridge, the present species
is fond of dusting itself, and will lie in the sunshine for long with evident pleasure. When
paired the present species lives in strict monogamy; but, as above stated, the males fight viciously
for the possession of the females.

The locality chosen for nidification is always one of the most arid desert places, and always
amongst the rocks, choosing a place where its nest will be best shielded from animals of prey.
Its nest is nothing beyond a hole scratched in the ground and lined with a few leaves or grass-
bents gathered together to form a scanty bed for its eggs. These latter, which are stated
by Bailly to vary in number from nine to eighteen, are deposited in the month of May ; but
Naumann writes that it rarely lays before the early part of June, and sometimes not until July,
and that the number of eggs varies between twelve and fifteen, sometimes as many as twenty-four
being deposited.

The eggs of this species are in shape and size similar to those of the common Redleg, but
somewhat larger and much paler, the ground-colour being pale yellowish, and the markings small
and very pale, so that at the first glance the egg looks almost uniform yellowish. Although it is
doubtful whether the appellation " Greek " Partridge is not more applicable to Caccabis chukar
than to the present species, yet, as the European bird is generally known by that name from the
eastern species, I have deemed it best to retain it for the western bird, and to call Caccabis
chukar by the name used by Dr. Jerdon, viz. Chukor Partridge.

The specimen figured is an adult male from Naples, in the collection of Lord Lilford ; and
in the background to the left I have had a specimen of Caccabis chukar from the island of
Rhodes figured for comparison as regards the colour of the throat. In the article on the Chukor
Partridge woodcuts are given of the heads of both that and the present species, to show the very
distinctive character in the distribution of the black at the base of the bill.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 ad. Switzerland (Moschler). b, 2 jun. Switzerland (Dr. Kutter). c, pull. Near Barcelonette, Basses-
Alpes (E. Fairmaire) .

E Mus. Lord Lilford.

a, 6 , b, 2 ■ Switzerland (Moschler). c, <5 , d, J . Naples, February 15th, 1875 (L.).

E Mus. Hcivard Saunders,
a, J , b, 2 ■ Usern, Switzerland (Nager Donazian) .

97

CACCABIS CHUKAK.

(CHUKOR PARTRIDGE.)

Perdix grceca, Briss. Orn. i. p. 241 (1760, partim).

Tetrao rufa, Pall. Zoogr. Eosso-As. ii. p. 79 (1811, nee Linn.).

Perdix chukar, G. R. Gray, in Cuv. Animal Kingd. Griff, ed. iii. p. 54 (1829).

Chacura pugnax, Hodgs. Madr. Journal, 1837, p. 505.

Pyctes (Chacura) chukor, Hodgs. in Gray's Zool. Misc. p. 85 (1844).

Chacura grceca, var., Riipp. Syst. Uebers. p. 106. no. 376 (1845).

Perdix grceca, Eversm. Journ. fur Orn. 1853, p. 292.

Caccabis rupicola, Licht. Nomencl. Avium, p. 85 (1854).

Chacura chukar (Gray), Heugl. Syst. Uebers. p. 50 (1856).

Perdix altaica, Bp. Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 10 (1856, descr. nulla).

Perdix synaica, Bp. torn. cit. p. 10 (1856, descr. nulla).

Perdix sinaica, Bp. J. f. Orn. 1858, p. 31.

Perdix chukart, Bp. ut supra.

Caccabis saxatilis, Tristr. Ibis, 1859, p. 35 (nee Meyer).

Caccabis chukar, G. E. Gray, List of Gallinse Brit. Mus. p. 36 (1859).

Chacura sinaitica, Heugl. Journ. fur Orn. 1861, p. 312.

Caccabis chukor (Gray), Jerd. B. of India, iii. p. 564 (1863).

Caccabis chukar, var. pubescens, Svvinh. Ibis, 1865, p. 353.

Caccabis synoica (Bp.), G. E. Gray, Hand-1. of B. ii. p. 274 (1870).

Caccabis pallescens, Hume, Lahore to Yarkand, p. 283 (1873).

Caccabis arenarius, Hume, op. cit. p. 283 (1873).

Caccabis pallidus, Hume, op. cit. p. 284 (1873).

Ad. Cacc. saxatili similis, sed corpore supra pallidiore et rufescentiore, fronte et pilei lateribus eaerulescenti-
cinereis nee albidis, auricularibus rufescente terminatis, gula ochrascenti-cervina nee alba, plumis ad
basin rostri ante oculos albis nee nigris, scapularibus cserulescenti-canis conspicue ferrugineo mar-
ginatis.

Adult Male (Phandos, Rhodes, 11th December). Resembles Caccabis saxatilis, but has the upper parts
lighter, more rufous, and less grey in tinge ; the sides and front of the crown are not nearly white, as
in C. saxatilis, but blue-grey ; the auriculars are broadly terminated with rufous, the chin and throat
are yellowish buff, and the space in front of the eye, at the base of the bill, is whitish buff, not
black as in C. saxatilis, this last being the best characteristic, and always constant ; the scapulars,
especially the upper ones, are dove-blue, broadly margined with rufous, almost fox-red. Total length
about 12 inches, culmen TO, wing 6 - 4, tail 3 - 8, tarsus 1"85.

Female. Similar to the male.

Obs. The present species is subject to great individual variation. After having examined a considerable

3a2

98

series I find it impossible to recognize any specific difference between the different races, the chief
difference being that of shade of colour. Mr. Severtzoff, who is at present working with me, also
informs me that every shade of eolour, from the palest to the average Himalayan form, was met with
in the same tract of country by Colonel Przevalsky when collecting in Mongolia. I find also some
slight variation in size, as will be seen from the following table of measurements of examples from

various localities : —

Culmen. Wing. Tail. Tarsus,

inch. inches. inches. inches.

Rhodes, 2,6 0-80-0-95 5-90-6-5 3-50-3-9 1.65-1-8

Cyprus 0-92 6-40-6-5 3-50-3-6 1-70-1-8

Asia Minor, ?, 6 . . .0-85-0-95 5-80-6-1. 3-40-3-6 1-60-1-65

Palestine 0-90 6-30 3-50 1-80

Persia 0-80-0-9 6-25 3-25-3-4 1-70-1-8

Mesopotamia 0-90-1-0 6-40-6'7 3-65-39 1-85-2-0

? Altai 0-90 6-30 3'90 2-0

India 0-75-0-9 6-30-6-6 3-60-3-7 1-65-1-75

Mr. Severtzoff further informs me that in Turkestan he remarked the same individual variation in coloration
of plumage as was observed in Mongolia by Colonel Przevalsky, but to a lesser degree. I may here
remark that the description of Caccabis sinaica, the pale form of the present species, was not published
until after the death of Bonaparte. The name was published in 1856 ; but no description was then
given. However, a paper giving diagnoses of the various Red-legged Partridges was placed in the hands
of the editor of the ' Journ. fur Orn/ shortly before the death of Prince Bonaparte ; but this was not
issued until 1858.

This, the eastern representative of our European Greek Partridge, is met with in Europe only
in the south-eastern countries, but is thence very generally distributed in Asia, in suitable
localities, as far east as China. Although Caccabis saxatilis is the Eed-legged Partridge of the
mainland of Greece, yet, so far as I can ascertain, the present species only is found on the
islands, where it is tolerably common, but does not extend further westward. I am indebted to
Mr. C. G. Danford for a series of specimens from Ehodes, and to Lord Lilford for an opportunity
of examining the examples collected by him, all of which are certainly referable to the present
species. Several of those collected by Lord Lilford have the throat very white, nearly as white as
in Caccabis saxatilis, whereas others have the throat yellower and darker than average Indian
examples ; but all have the characteristic distribution of the black at the base of the bill, and
cannot be separated from true C. chukar. I am indebted to his Lordship for the following note,
viz. : — " The very few Partridges seen by me during our stay in Suda bay, in the island of Crete,
during the last days of March and the beginning of April 1874, belonged to the yellow-throated
race of this species, whilst all those met with in Cyprus, where they are extremely abundant,
were the white-throated ; we found them principally in hilly and uncultivated ground amongst a
thick growth of juniper and lentiscus, but met with many also in the wheat-fields in the valleys
of the north-eastern promontory or Horn of Cyprus." The present species is also numerous in
the Ionian islands, being, Lord Lilford states (Ibis, 1860, p. 238), "most abundant in Cephalonia,
Santa Maura, Kalamo, Petala, Arkudi, and Meganisi." Dr. Kriiper met with it on the island of
Naxos, where, he says, it breeds in the more elevated portions of the mountains ; and Messrs.

99

Elwes and Buckley say (Ibis, 1870, p. 328) that on the islands of Imbros and Lemnos, off the
entrance of the Dardanelles, it is so numerous that, as they were assured by a well-known
sportsman at Constantinople, fifty brace might with ease be bagged by a good shot at the end of
August. These gentlemen did not see or hear of it in Bulgaria ; but Messrs. Alleon and Vian
state (Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1873, p. 261) that the species which occurs near Constantinople is
true C. clmkar ; and they describe a specimen, clearly giving the distinguishing characters. They
add that it is resident near Constantinople. In Asia Minor it is said to be common in suitable
localities; and I have specimens obtained near Smyrna. Canon Tristram met with it in Palestine,
where it is, he says, the Partridge of the country. I have examined examples obtained by him
there which are undoubtedly true C. chukar, but are a trifle paler than specimens from the Greek
islands. Mr. Wyatt did not often met with it in the peninsula of Sinai, where, he says, it is
restricted in its habitat, keeping to the higher wadys; and he further writes (Ibis, 1870, p. 16)
as follows : — " It frequents the highest parts of the mountains in the neighbourhood of Jebel
Musa ; it also occurs near Serbal, I believe, though I never met with it there myself. I found
it much more common on the highlands of Edom and at Petra than in the peninsula." It is,
Mr. Blanford informs me, " widely distributed in Persia, at all elevations up to 10,000 feet,
keeping to hills, especially those covered with small bushes, and often found in large coveys. I
have seen at least twenty together in August on the Elburz. The flesh is usually rather dry and
less well flavoured than that of other Partridges." And in a note furnished to Mr. Blanford,
and lent to me by that gentleman, Major St. John writes as follows: — "I have shot this bird at
all elevations from 10,000 feet in the Elburz to the base of the hills near Bushire. In the wild
moorland country which fringes the oak-forests of Fars on the north, it is especially abundant.
I have killed twelve and a half brace before breakfast in September near the Khan-i-zinian
caravanserai, twenty-five miles west of Shiraz. Contrary to what is recorded of its habits in the
Himalayas, it avoids cultivation in Persia."

It is stated by Mr. Hume to be common in Sindh. This gentleman writes (Stray Feathers,
i. p. 226) as follows: — "The Sindh Chukore, though not specifically separable, is a great deal
paler than that found in Kumaon, the valleys of the Jumna, Ganges, Sutlej, and Beas, so far as
these lie within the hills, and the lower of the intermediate hill-ranges. As we travel further
west an intermediate type of colouring is noticeable ; and, as a rule; the birds from the neigh-
bourhood of Murdan, though quite as dark on the upper surface and vent &c, are much paler,
in fact almost as pale as the Sindh birds, so far as the general tone of colour is concerned. The
Sindh birds closely resemble the race from Ladak, which I designated (Lahore to Yarkand)
pallescens ; but that bird is characterized by its larger and stronger bill, and by the almost entire
absence of any rufous tinge on the crown, occiput, and nape ; whereas in the Sindh birds the
bills run slightly smaller than those of the common Himalayan form, and there is a decided
rufous tinge on the occiput and nape. It is found throughout the rocky hills that divide the
Punjab from Afghanistan and Khelat and the latter from Sindh." I reproduce these data
respecting the Sindh bird as given by Mr. Hume, but may add that I quite agree with him that
there is no specific distinction between these pale and dark races of the Chukor Partridge, as
every intermediate variety is to be found. In India, Dr. Jerdon writes (B. of India, ii. p. 565),
it is found throughout the western Himalayas, from the lowest range to the snows, and passing

100

over into Thibet ; but it does not extend so far east as Sikkim. It is also met with in the Salt
range of the Punjab and its more alpine regions, passing into Afghanistan." Captain Beavan
says (Ibis, 1868, p. 384) that it "is very generally found on the hills about Simla; and the first
time I saw wild specimens was in April 1866, when, marching up to that station from Umballah
by the new cart-road, I put a pair up off the road-side. I have since had numerous skins sent
to me from Kotgurh, a small village in the interior some fifty miles beyond Simla, where
numbers are annually snared by the natives, who sell their skins to the European inhabitants
of Simla. They seem to frequent tolerably open hill-sides, where cacti abound." Colonel Irby
also speaks of the present species as being common in Kumaon, and especially numerous at a
place called Jullut or Moonsheyaree, seven days' march from Almorah. It was found in
Yarkand by Dr. Henderson, who says (Lahore to Yarkand, p. 284) that "it swarms (wherever
the rivers debouch into the plains) over a belt of country some ten or fifteen miles in width."

Mr. Severtzoff informs me that it is found throughout the entire Thian Shan, south-west
and north-east of the river Hi, but it is questionable if it occurs in the true Altai range, north
of Zaissan Lake. It inhabits the mountains near Samarcand, and in the small desert-ranges
north of Bokhara, westward to and including the Sheihdjeili range on the right bank of the
Oxus, some fifty miles N.E. of Khiva. Colonel Przevalsky met with it in the mountains of
Western China which skirt the desert of Gobi ; and Mr. Swinhoe states (P. Z. S. 1871, p. 400)
that it inhabits " North China, southwards to the north bank of the Upper Yangtsze, in the
gorges. Chinese specimens have a deep blush of rosiness over their upper plumage, which is
not seen in Himalayan skins." I must not omit to name that a Eed-legged Partridge, said to
be the present species, has been introduced into St. Helena. Mr. Melliss writes (Ibis, 1870,
p. 102) that its existence there was mentioned in Cavendish's ' Travels ' as early as the year
1588 ; and, he adds, there is no record to show whence it was introduced, but it is most probably
the present species, though a closer examination of specimens from St. Helena is desirable.

Like the Greek Partridge the present species frequents rugged, mountainous localities,
generally such as are sterile or covered with bushes where it can find shelter. Lord Lilford,
who met with it in the Ionian Islands, says (Ibis, 1860, p. 238) that it "haunts the stony hill-
sides, never, as far as my own observation goes, descending to the plain. It is not easy to make
a good bag of these birds, even in localities where they are numerous, as the coveys disperse on
being disturbed, and, on alighting, each bird takes a line of its own, and sets off running to the
nearest covert, which in these parts generally consists of thick evergreen scrub, from which it is
very difficult to flush them." As a rule the Chukor is averse to taking flight, and will neither
fly far nor often, trusting rather to its legs to carry it out of the way of danger. Dr. Henderson
relates (I. c.) that in Yarkand the natives know well how to take advantage of this. " The
Yarkandies," he writes, " disdain the use of fire-arms for the chase of these birds. A party of
men mounted on ponies and armed with whips pursue a covey, and in a very short time succeed
in capturing the whole flock. The Chikone will never rise more than twice ; and after that, as
they run, they are easily overtaken and knocked over with whips. This sport is carried on over
the most terribly rough ground in the rocky valleys ; but the Yarkand ponies traverse at the top
of their speed country that most men would only crawl over with the utmost caution and
deliberation."

10

Like the Greek Partridge it is extremely pugnacious and quarrelsome, especially in the
spring of the year ; and it is said to have been kept tame for fighting in former ages, as game-
cocks were, not so long ago, in England. Naumann says that the inhabitants of Cyprus still
(when he wrote) kept them for this purpose ; and he remarks that history relates that the
Eoman Emperor Alexander Severus was extremely fond of this sport. The present species is
very easily tamed ; and, according to Tournefort (Voy. au Levant, i. p. 386), the inhabitants of
Scio and other islands of the Greek archipelago keep tame Chukor Partridges, which they
allow to seek food in the fields like poultry. Baron Konig Warthausen gives (J. f. O. 1870,
p. 66) the following extract from the journal of Samuel Kiechel, who travelled through almost
the whole of Europe between 1585 and 1589: — "In this island (Rhodes) many Partridges are
kept, some peasants having as many as 400 or 500, more or less. They breed, and are as tame
as geese. In the morning a boy or girl drives them out into the fields ; and they fly away and
search for food during the day. Towards evening the child goes out in search of them ; and
when they hear the child's call they fly towards him or her, and are led back to the house of
their owner." The Chukor Partridge breeds like the Greek Partridge, their nests and eggs
being very similar. Lord Lilford, who found it breeding in Cyprus, writes to me as follows : —
" We found several nests, containing from thirteen to sixteen eggs each, and consisting of dry
grasses with a few withered leaves, and in one instance a good many feathers ; these nests were
placed in the centre of low, very thick-growing lentisk bushes, in one case close to a much
frequented mule-track. The eggs are remarkably small for the size of the bird ; but these eastern
birds are themselves smaller than those of South Italy and Sicily. In certain portions of Cyprus
very fine mixed bags might be made in the autumn of these Partridges, Francolins, Quails,
Woodcocks, and hares ; but, though the ground is not difficult to travel, the density of the ever-
green scrub renders good dogs and plenty of them absolutely necessary."

A series of eggs of the Chukor Partridge in my collection from Palestine differ from those
of the common Eedleg in having the ground-colour paler, and the markings, as a rule, less clearly
defined ; but they vary much, inter se, some being pale whitish buff with the smallest possible
reddish dots, whereas others are tolerably closely marked with dull rufous blotches. In size
they vary from 1^ by l^- inch to Iff by 1^ inch. I have not deemed it necessary to give a
Plate of the present species, as the chief characteristic, viz. the distribution of the black at the
base of the bill, is not so easily shown on a Plate ; but the woodcuts of the heads of the two
species at the end of the present article will clearly show this character, that on the right being
Caccabis saxatilis, and that on the left Caccalis chukar.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a,d,b,2- Phandos, Rhodes, December 11th, 1874 (C. G. Danford). c, d , d, $ . Near Smyrna, January
10th, 1866 (G. v. Gonzenbach).

E Mus. Lord Lilford.
a,b,6,c,2. Cyprus, April 29th, 1875. d. Capo di Gata, Cyprus, May 8th, 1875 (L.), e, ?. Smyrna

102

6

(Verreaux). /, 6. Nazareth, March 9th, 1864 (H. B. Tristram), g, ?. Ghor of Jordan, March 11th,
1864 (H. B. T.). h, i,j, k, I. India.

E Mus. Brit. Reg.

a, b. El Bussah. c, d, e. Altai Mountains ? {Brandt) . f, g. Persia, labelled C. pallidiceps (Loftus) . h.
Kerrind, Persia, June 14th, 1851. i. Mungerrah, Persia, k, I. Himalayas. m,n,o, p. Nepal (Hodgson).
g. Thibet (Earl Gifford).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, b. India.

Caccabis chukar.

Caccabis saxatilis.

471

i

I. RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE.

CACCABIS RUBRA

2 BARBARY PARTRIDGE.

CACCABIS PETROSA

103

CACCABIS KUFA.

(RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE.)

Perdix rubra, Brisson, Orn. i. p. 236 (1760).

Tetrao rufus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 277 (1766, partim).

La Perdrix rouge d'JEurope, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 431, pi. xv. (1771).

Tetrao rufus, L., Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 756 (1788).

Perdix rufa (L.) /3, Latham, Ind. Orn. ii. p. 647 (1790).

Perdix rubra varia, J. F. Naumann, Naturg. Vog. Deutschl. vi. p. 566 (1833).

Perdix rubra pallida, J. F. Naumann, torn. cit. p. 567 (1833).

Perdix rubra Candida, J. F. Naumann, torn. cit. p. 567 (1833).

Caccabis rufa (L.), G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, iii. p. 508 (1849).

Perdix rufidorsalis, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 266 (1855).

Perdix rubra intercedens, A. E. Brehm, Allg. deutsch. naturh. Zeit. 1857, p. 472.

Caccabis rubra communis, A. E. Brehm, Verz. Samml. C. L. Brehm, p. 11 (1866).

Red-legged Partridge, French Partridge, English ; Perdrix rouge, French ; Perdiz, Spanish ;
Pernice comune, Italian.

Figures notabiles.

DAubenton, PI. Enl. 150; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 13; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 29.
fig. 9; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 165. figs. 1, 2; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 260; id. B. of
G. Brit. iv. pi. xiv. ; Eoux, Orn. Prov. pis. 257, 258.

J ad. fronte et pileo cinereis, hoc in parte ceutrali rufescente lavato, pileo imo, nucha et collo postico rufes-
centi-brunneis : corpore supra rufeseenti-fusco, dorso imo, scapularibus et tectricibus alarum cinereo
tinctis : remigibus nigro-fuscis, primariis omnibus (extimo excepto) et secundariis externis in pogonio
extemo ex parte ochraceis : rectricibus centralibus dorso concoloribus, reliquis saturate ferrugineis :
gula cum capitis lateribus albis et linea, superciliari alba, ad nucham ducta: ad basin mandibuhe
utrinque et in mento centraliter macula nigra: a rostro per oculum circum gutturem fascia nigra
producta : gutture infra hanc fasciam grisescenti-albido, ubique nigra guttato et vix brunneo lavato, in
parte ima, grisescenti-brunneo : abdomine et subcaudalibus pallide rufescentibus : hypochondriis varie-
gatis, plumis ad basin pallide rufescentibus, posthac cserulescenti-cinereis fascia alba, et fascia sub-
apicali nigra, notatis et ferrugineo terminatis : rostro et pedibus rubris, iride rufescenti-fusca.

2 ad. mari similis, sed sordidior et vix minor.

Juv. sordidior, corpore supra brunnescentiore : secundariis intimis vix brunneo variegatis et tectricibus alarum
ochrascente albido notatis : fascia collari nulla : gutture imo nigro guttato.

Adult Male (Norfolk). Forehead to the centre of the crown ash-grey, gradually merging into reddish
brown, which colour extends over the hinder portion of the crown, nape, and hind neck ; upper parts

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104

generally reddish brown, tinged with grey, this latter colour being most marked on the wing-coverts,
scapulars, and lower back; quills blackish brown, a portion of the outer web of all the primaries,
except the first, and of the seven outer secondaries ochre-yellow, the four central rectrices coloured
like the back, the remainder being deep foxy red ; throat and cheeks white, and a line of white passes
from the base of the upper mandible over the eye down to the side of the hind neck ; on each side of
the lower mandible at the base, and at the base of the mandible on the chin, is a black spot ; from the
bill through the eye a black band passes, widening and meeting the corresponding band on the fore
neck, enclosing the white on the throat ; below this band the lower neck is greyish white, spotted and
splashed all round the neck with black, and slightly tinged with brown, and on the lower part of the
throat merging into greyish brown ; breast dark French grey, lower breast, abdomen, under tail-coverts,
and tibial feathers light reddish ; flanks with the feathers very richly variegated, being light reddish at
the base, then rich blue-grey, then crossed by a white bar, then by a subterminal, clearly defined, black
bar, and finally terminated with bright foxy red ; bill, naked space about the eye, and feet bright red ;
iris hazel, with a reddish tinge. Total length about 13 inches, culmen 075, wing 6'0, tail 365,
tarsus 17.

Adult Female. Very closely resembles the male, but is a trifle duller in colour, and wants the knob on the
tarsus.

Young (Leadenhall Market, September). Resembles the adult, but is much duller in colour; some of the
inner secondaries and wing-coverts variegated with brown, and marked with yellowish white ; throat
dirty white, the black collar wanting, the lower throat being merely closely spotted with black.

Obs. Specimens from Spain are a trifle richer in general coloration than others from England ; and the two
I have examined in Messrs. Salvin and Godman's collection, from the Azores, have the black collar
much broader than many others I have seen.

The common Red-legged or French Partridge, as this species is usually called in England, has
a comparatively small range, being met with only in Western and Southern Europe, Madeira,
and the Azores; but having been introduced into Great Britain it has now become tolerably
common here, and has been found even as far north as Scotland.

Mr. A. G. More, writing on its range in England, says (Ibis, 1865, p. 428), " Introduced
about one hundred years ago, the Red-legged Partridge has become very numerous in some of
the eastern counties, where, in the struggle for life, it has been stated to have in some places
nearly supplanted the common Grey Partridge. There must be some local influences that limit
the range of the Red-legged Partridge in this country, since the attempts made to establish it in
Dorset, Hereford, Derby, and East Yorkshire appear to have failed ; nor has the bird hitherto
spread to any of our south-western shires. I am informed by Mr. T. Gough that it has bred
regularly of late years in Westmoreland. The bird is returned as now breeding occasionally in
Kent (Mr. G. Jell), in Essex, Herts, Oxford (occasionally), Bucks, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge,
Huntingdon (occasionally), Northampton (occasionally), Lincoln, Rutland (occasionally), and
West York (very rarely). The Rev. F. J. Scott believes that it is established in the hills of
Gloucestershire; but some confirmation of this last locality appears desirable." As stated by
Mr. More, the eastern counties of England are those where this species appears to have found a
home most suited to it; and in Norfolk and Suffolk it is numerous. Mr. H. Stevenson, in his

105

exhaustive article on this species (B. of Norfolk, i. p. 405), writes as follows : — " Its introduction
into the eastern counties dates only from the close of the last century, when, about the year
1770, the Marquis of Hertford and Lord Eendlesham are recorded to have had large quantities
of eggs imported from the continent, and the young birds, hatched under domestic fowls, were
turned off at Sudbourn and Eendlesham, in Suffolk, on the respective estates of the above noble-
men. From thence they soon spread to other portions of the county, and the adjoining parts of
Norfolk ; and in Daniel's ' Rural Sports ' we find the author speaking of a covey of fourteen
discovered by himself in 1777 within two miles of Colchester, which in a very thick piece of
turnips, ' baffled for half an hour the exertions of a brace of good pointers to make them take
wing ; and the first which did so immediately perched on the hedge, and was shot in that situation
without it being known what bird it was.' Others are also described by the same writer as
having been killed in 1799, at Sudbourn, where they were originally turned off. During the
next twenty years, they would seem to have increased rapidly, as in 1826 they are thus referred
to by Messrs. Sheppard and Whitear : — ' These birds are now very plentiful in some parts of
Suffolk. We have seen at least one hundred and fifty brace in a morning upon Dunningworth
heath ; and they are found in greater or less numbers from Aldborough to Woodbridge ; a few
are also sometimes seen in Norfolk.' It appears, however, that other game-preservers, in both
Norfolk and Suffolk, following the example of the Marquis of Hertford, procured eggs from the
Continent, and were equally successful in extending the breed. Mr. Alfred Newton has furnished
me with the following additional particulars, as communicated to him by his late father: — 'The
year after Lord Cornwallis died (1823) Lords Alvanley and De Eos hired Culford; they had a
large number of Eed-legged Partridges' eggs sent over from France, which they distributed about
the neighbourhood, keeping, however, some at Culford. The Duke of Norfolk had a good many
at Fornham ; so also had Mr. Waddington at Cavenham. The eggs were set under hens ; and
nearly all of them hatched. This was the first introduction of the Eed-legged Partridge into
West Suffolk. They had been plentiful in the eastern division of the county several years before,
where Lord Hertford had introduced them.' Mr. Newton refused to have any eggs ; but in a few
years the birds spread to Elveden, and thence, of course, very rapidly into the adjacent parts of
Norfolk."

It does not inhabit Scotland; and an attempt referred to by Messrs. Baikie and Heddle
(Nat. Hist, of Ork. p. 56) to introduce it into Orkney appears to have failed, as nothing further
has been heard of it there. Mr. Eobert Gray (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 243) states that Mr. James
Mearns shot a specimen within two miles of Aberdeen, in January 1867, which appears only to
have been a chance visitor from the south. According to Thompson (B. of Irel. ii. p. 65), it was
" introduced into the county of Galway, in Ireland, about thirty years ago, but does not seem to
have thriven there." He refers to two specimens having been sent from Galway to Dublin to be
stuffed previous to 1844; and one was, he says, shot near Clonmel on the 4th February, 1849.

It does not occur in Scandinavia, Eussia, or Finland ; and its occurrence in Germany is very
doubtful. Naumann states that it is not found there; and Dr. Altum writes (J. f. O. 1863,
p. 114) that its occurrence in Munsterland is based on a picture; but Mr. F. Tiemann states
(J. f. O. 1865, p. 218) that it has occurred in Silesia.

I do not find any record of its occurrence in Holland ; and in Belgium it is of very acci-

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106

dental occurrence, and attempts to naturalize it in the vicinity of Liege have resulted in failure.
Throughout the whole of France it is generally distributed, being, however, local and somewhat
rare in the northern districts, but extremely numerous in the south. The Eev. A. C. Smith (Ibis,
1868, p. 450) says this is the only recognized Partridge of Portugal, and is very abundant; and
that Dr. Tristram writes of it: — "Your specimen is much brighter than our English Eed-leg; the
chestnut on the head and upper back is much brighter, and the ash-brown of the lower back
much more distinct and contrasted with the rufous above ; the ochreous abdomen and lower tail-
coverts are much paler." But Dr. E. Eey, writing in 1872, says (J. f. O. 1872, p. 154) that it is
now nowhere common in that country, chiefly owing to the law which permits free shooting,
though wild cats may to some extent have assisted in diminishing its numbers. In Spain it is
extremely common, and, as Lord Lilford states (Ibis, 1875, p. 8), "is the Partridge of Spain,
from Irun to Tarifa, and from Lisbon to Barcelona;" but it does not occur on the Eock of
Gibraltar, where Caccabis petrosa is alone found. Mr. Howard Saunders speaks also of it as
being " common everywhere " in Spain. In the Balearic Islands the present species is the only
species of the family which occurs ; and Lord Lilford says this is the case also in Corsica and Elba.
In Switzerland it is said (J. f. O. 1860, p. 393) to be rare, and unknown in the neighbourhood of
Boll ; but it occurs in limited numbers in the Jura and in some parts of Canton Wallis. Bailly
says that in Savoy it is more numerous than Caccabis saxatilis, but less so than the common
Grey Partridge; and on the mainland of Italy it is generally distributed and numerous; but
Lord Lilford says it becomes decidedly scarce in the southern provinces, and he never met with
a specimen in the markets of Naples. In Sardinia and Sicily it does not occur ; and Mr. C. A.
Wright includes it (Ibis, 1869, p. 252) amongst doubtful occurrences in his third appendix to
his " List of Birds observed in Malta and Gozo." I do not find any record of its occurrence
further eastward, except that Dr. A. Fritsch, writing on the ornithology of Bohemia, says (J. f. O.
1871, p. 313) that attempts were made to introduce it in the Trauenberg district in 1S63; and
about ten years previously Count Furstenberg made a similar trial in the Piirglitzer forest, which
did not succeed, as the birds could not stand the severe winters. It is stated by Dr. L. Buvry
(J. f. O. 1857, p. 67) to occur in North-west Africa; but neither Loche nor any other of the
later writers on North-west African ornithology includes it, and Loche states positively that only
Caccabis petrosa is found in Algeria.

It occurs at Madeira and in the Azores, in the latter, according to Mr. Godman, inhabiting
the eastern and central groups — and is said to be very abundant in the mountains of St. Mary's,
and occasionally found at St. Michael's and Terceira.

From personal experience I know scarcely any thing respecting the habits of this Partridge,
and cannot do better than transcribe Mr. Stevenson's notes on it as observed by him in Norfolk.
This gentleman writes (B. of Norfolk, i. p. 408) as follows : — " The shy, restless nature of this
species, continually ' footing it ' before the guns, and taking wing only when closely pressed or
far out of reach of any ordinary fowling-piece, renders it particularly obnoxious to sportsmen on
the more closely cultivated and enclosed portions of the country. In such districts many are
the volleys of something more than small shot called forth by the provoking habits of these
birds in the early part of the season. No sooner do the guns enter the turnips at one end of
the field, than the wary Frenchmen are seen topping the opposite fences one after another,

107

alighting again on the adjoining stubbles, and, with heads erect, making off at a most incredible
pace. Scattering themselves in all directions, they unsettle the English birds that would
otherwise lie well in good cover — and of course, from their running before the dogs, were
still more objectionable under the old style of Partridge-shooting with pointers or setters.
Thus trying his patience in every possible way, it is no great wonder if the sportsman, under
such circumstances, delights to bag every Red-leg he can, and considers no distance too far to
'let fly' at his feathered tormentors. Nor is he repaid after all his trouble and many disappoint-
ments by securing a delicacy for the table, the chief attraction of this species consisting far more
in its handsome plumage than its edible qualities.

" Undoubtedly a fine old male, with its vermilion-coloured beak and legs, its dark gorget,
and lovely feathers on the flanks and thighs, is a very striking object, and contrasts well with
the more sombre and uniform tints of the common Partridge, when the day's ' bag ' is laid out
for inspection. Unsuited, however, as is the usual style of shooting to the habits of French
Partridges, they afford fine sport in November and December, when most of the beet and
turnips are off the lands, as they then congregate on the ploughed fields, and can be driven over
the gunners placed under cover at convenient distances. In fact the ' driving ' system now so
generally adopted on the large estates, is unquestionably the proper method of shooting Red-legs,
and one which tries well the mettle of the sportsmen, as they mount up higher than the English
birds, and fly, when well on the wing, at an almost incredible pace. Yet, at the same time, it
must be remembered that such sport can be enjoyed with impunity only on extensive manors,
well stocked with birds, since, if attempted too often on limited areas, the Partridges may be
thus driven off the land altogether, as surely as by the too frequent use of the ' kite ' at the
latter part of the season. A very effectual time also for reducing their numbers is immediately
after a good fall of snow, before a night's frost has hardened the surface. No longer able to
run, and still unwilling to fly till obliged to take wing, they seem deprived for the time of
their usual sagacity, and, seeking shelter in the thickest hedge-rows, if in the enclosed parts of
the country, or in the gorse and broom coverts of the light-land districts, afford excellent sport
for a couple of guns ' doubling ' the fences, with a steady dog to flush the birds. Advantage is
likewise taken by some persons of the altered character of the Red-legs when the snow is on the
ground ; for by flushing them again and again, and following them up directly, the birds become
sufficiently exhausted to be run down one after the other — a method not unfrequently adopted
by poachers in districts not strictly preserved. Under similar circumstances our English birds,
if they seek cover at all, betake themselves to the thickest plantation, frequenting the hedge-
rows even less than at other times ; but they prefer, for the most part, the open fields, where
their dark forms are plainly visible on the white ground, and where they are more difficult than
ever to approach within shot. There is no reason, however, to suppose from this habit that the
Red-leg is more susceptible of cold than the Grey Partridge, as, with the same opportunities of
procuring food, I have never found their condition affected by the sharpest weather ; indeed
they come to us from a country where the winters are uniformly more severe than our own.

" They frequent both heavy and light lands ; and I have frequently found them plentiful on
heavy-land farms where the English birds have been comparatively scarce, thus filling a void ;
for as French birds thrive well where, before their introduction, the Grey Partridge was not

108

6

found, it is unfair to suppose that the absence of the latter is now owing to the pugnacity of the
Red-legs. In such localities, by pursuing them in wet weather, when the sticky soil prevented
their running, I have been pretty successful in making a bag ; and they may be readily killed
during a drenching shower if the gun-caps or cartridges will but go off when required. Strong
on the wing, and not often affording a close shot, they require very hard hitting, and will
frequently carry off the best part of a charge, to die of their wounds after a prolonged flight ■
whilst many a bird, when finally brought to bag, shows evidence of former injuries from long
shots, so frequently, though somewhat cruelly, made at them at almost impossible distances.
There is one other particular in which the French Partridge differs entirely from our common
species — namely, in its habit of occasionally perching in trees, flying up into the thick foliage
like a Pheasant or Wood-Pigeon — an action which at first not a little astonished our local
sportsmen, many of whom most probably entertained the same opinion as an old veteran
Partridge-shot, who assured me that the first time he met with a covey of Ked-legs, and some
of them took to the trees, ' he fully believed the birds had gone mad.' On one occasion, whilst
shooting on a farm where they were very numerous, I observed this course adopted by single
birds in three instances on the same day; and more recently I have known a good-sized covey
flushed from the top of an oak timber; and single birds, when chased from place to place in
snowy weather, fly up to and settle in the tops of oak pollards. They may also be seen sitting
occasionally in a long row on the top of a wall, the ridge of a barn-roof, or on an ordinary park
fencing. It is not an unusual custom in this country, when nests of the Grey Partridge have been
mown out, or discovered in too exposed situations, to transfer the eggs thus taken to a French
Partridge's nest; and in several instances I have known them successfully hatched, and the
young birds treated in every respect as her own by the foster-mother. It is said, however, that
the running habits of the French birds are generally fatal to the English nestlings, which, to use
a thoroughly Norfolk expression, are ' drabbled ' to death in attempting to keep up with such
untiring pedestrians. I mention this only as a common belief amongst gamekeepers, being
unable to vouch for its accuracy; but I have more than once observed, in the shooting-season, a
pair of old French birds rise from the turnips at the head of a covey of English, though, of
course, it is quite possible in such cases that the Eed-legs had ' run up ' the Grey Partridges, and
thus all had risen together.

" French Partridges, both on the wing and in the field, are easily recognized at a distance
by their larger size and darker tints of plumage, to say nothing of the difference in the noise of
their wings in flying. When alarmed they carry their heads erect, turning them in all directions
to catch the sound of any approaching danger, and continue this even when running at their
greatest speed. If undisturbed, however, and feeding leisurely, their appearance (as seen through
a glass) is very different, and, with feathers puffed out and rounded backs, whilst slowly searching
the ground for grain and insects, they look almost as large as Pheasants. They are partial to
the shelter of thick hedge-rows and plantations, but, unless driven into such cover, are seldom
found far from the outer fence, through which they can run on the slightest alarm ; and in
walking quietly up a wood-side where these birds are plentiful, it is very usual to see one or
more Red-legs issuing from the hedge-bottom, and hurrying along under the bank. They are

109

fond also of basking in thick rushy carrs ; and in low meadows will hide in the sedgy margins of
the watercourses, where I have shot them late in the season when looking for Snipe."

It has been supposed by some observers that a partial migration of this species takes place
on our east coast ; but after going very fully into this question, Mr. Stevenson shows that the
balance of evidence is against this being the case ; and I fully agree with him in the conclusions
at which he has arrived.

Eggs of this Partridge in my collection from Norfolk are yellowish buff or stone-buff,
sprinkled with dull reddish markings, which in some consist only of fine dots spread over the
surface of the shell, whereas in others there are irregular blotches here and there. One speci-
men is blotched with pale purplish pink on a pale stone-buff ground. In size my specimens
vary from 1£± by 1 ^ to l|ft by 1±%.

The specimen figured, on the same Plate with Caccabis petrosa, is an adult male from
Norfolk, and is the bird described, this and the female being in my collection ; but the young
male described is in the collection of Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. E. E. Dresser.
a, (J. Norfolk, b, $. Near Hampstead, July 1871 {Davy).

E Mus. Salvin and Godman.
a, b. St. Mary's, Azores, June 1865 (F. D. Godman) .

E Mus. J. E. Gurney, jun.

a, ?. Northrepps, Norwich, December 30th, 1865 (/. H. G.). b,juv. Leadenhall Market, September 1870.
c. Madrid, 1867.

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, 3 . Valencia, January 13th. b, 6 . Malaga, December 24th.

E Mus. Lord Lilford.
a, b, 6 , c, $ . Madrid market, April 1865 (L.).

110

Ill

CACCABIS PETEOSA.

(BARBARY PARTRIDGE.)

Red-legged Partridge from Barbary, Edwards, Nat. Hist. p. 70, pi. 70 (1747).

Perdix rubra barbarica, Briss. Orn. i. p. 239 (1760).

Tetrao rufus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p.' 277 (1766, partim).

La Perdrh % rouge de Barbarie, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 445 (1771).

La Perdrix de Roche, Buff. torn. cit. p. 446 (1771).

Tetrao petrosus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 758 (1788).

Perdix rufa y, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 647 (1790).

Perdix petrosa (Gm.), Lath. torn. cit. p. 648 (1790).

Alectoris, Kaup (Perdix petrosa, Lath.), Nattirl. Syst. p. 180 (1829).

Caccabis petrosa (Gm.), G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, iii. p. 508 (1849).

Pernice di Sardegna, Italian ; LI Hedjel, Moorish.

Figures notabiles.

Edwards, I. c. ; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 14 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 29. fig. 6 ; Gould,
B. of Eur. pi. 261. fig. 1 ; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 260.

c? ad. pileo centrali a basi rostri, nucha et collo postico castaneis, capitis et pilei lateribus cum gula pallide
caerulescenti-cinereis : torque collari castaneo, lateraliter latiore, et albo guttato : dorso et corpore
supra grisescenti-brunneis : remigibus nigricanti-fuscis, primariis (extimo excepto) dimidio apicali in
pogonio externo ochrascentibus, secundariis pallidioribus indistincte nigro-fusco vermiculatis : scapu-
laribus saturate cinereis valde castaneo marginatis : rectricibus centralibus dorso concoloribus et vix
nigro-fusco vermiculatis, reliquis saturate castaneis : gutture imo cinereo, pectore pallide rufescente :
abdomine rufescenti-cervino, hypocbondriis ut in Caccabe rufd picturatis : rostro et pedibus rubris :
iride fusca.

$ ad. mari similis, sed vix minor et sordidior.

Adult Male (Sardinia, January). Centre of the crown from the base of the bill, nape, and hind neck rich
chestnut-red ; sides of the head, above and below the eye, and throat fight bluish ash or French grey ;
below this is a collar of rich chestnut-red, very broad on the sides of the neck and narrow in the centre,
being marked with small white round spots ; back and rump greyish brown; quills blackish brown, all
the primaries, except the first, with the terminal half of the outer web deep ochre-yellow, secondaries
lighter brown, very indistinctly vermiculated on the outer web with dark brown, outer scapulars and
some of the adjoining wing-coverts deep bluish ash, broadly margined with chestnut-red, remaining
wing-coverts like the back ; the four central rectrices coloured like the back, and slightly vermiculated
with dark blackish brown, the remaining rectrices dark foxy red; throat, below the red collar, bluish
ash; breast light reddish, this colour becoming rufous buff on the abdomen and under tail-coverts;
flanks marked with white, black, and foxy red, or chestnut, as in Caccabis rufa ; beak, the bare space

112

round the eye and legs red; iris hazel. Total length about 13 inches, culmen 0'9, wing 61, tail 3*75.
tarsus 1'85.

Adult Female. Resembles the male, but is a trifle less brightly coloured, and, as a rule, a little smaller
in size.

This Partridge is found only in Southern Europe, and North-western Africa and the Canaries,
and does not appear to have been acclimatized in other parts of Europe. Yarrell certainly
includes it in his work on the birds of Great Britain, but on very slight grounds, one specimen
having been said to have been picked up dead at Edmondthorpe, about six miles from Melton
Mowbray, in April 1842 ; and makes the improbable surmise that eggs of tbis Partridge may
have been introduced with those of the common Red-legged Partridge. It does not appear to
inhabit France, as, although Degland and Gerbe speak of it as occurring in the southern portion
of that country, Jaubert and Barthelemy-Lapommeraye do not even include it as a straggler ; nor
has it been met with in Portugal.

In Spain it is found only on the Rock of Gibraltar, where it is resident, having probably
been introduced there. Mr. Saunders also says (Ibis, 1871, p. 223) that he saw a specimen in
the Murcia Museum, and Dr. Angel Guirao informed him that, though now almost extinct, it was
formerly not uncommon in that province. It would appear that it is only found in a wild state
in the island of Sardinia, and perhaps in Corsica ; and any occasional specimens killed in Tuscany
or Liguria should be attributed, in Salvadori's opinion, to escaped or turned-down birds brought
by the trading vessels. It does not' occur in Sicily, in spite of Malherbe's statement to the
contrary. Writing on the ornithology of Sardinia, Mr. A. B. Brooke says (Ibis, 1873, p. 335), it
" is the only Partridge in the south of the island, where it is still common in many parts, and is
found both on the low mountains and plains. The cry of the cock bird during the months of
April and May is very remarkable, loud and melancholy, and can be heard always in the early
mornings and late evenings. I have heard several rumours of a different Partridge existing in
the north of the island, and I was assured by a good sportsman that he had shot P. cinerea
there ; but I never saw a specimen."

It is recorded from Greece by both Von der Miihle and Lindermayer. The former says
that it inhabits the elevated portions of the Taygetus mountains, in the Southern Morea. It
does not seem to occur in Rumelia; and Lindermayer states that it is not met with in the
southern islands of the Archipelago, nor does Erhardt include it; but Lindermayer surmises
that it may be met with in Crete or Cyprus. It does not appear to occur in Asia Minor or
North-east Africa, but is common and sedentary in North-western Africa, and, according to
Loche, is the only species found there. Mr. W. T. Chambers-Hodgetts shot several specimens
in Tripoli, where, he writes (Ibis, 1867, p. 101), it abounded amongst the steep rocky hills
covered with low scrub. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., says that a friend of his and two companions
killed upwards of seventy brace in one day at Oran, but he adds that it is almost unknown in
the Sahara. Canon Tristram, however, writes (Ibis, 1860, p. 72) that he put up a covey in the
Wed Nca, south of the Mzab country, where water is found only for three months in the year,
and the whole vegetation is entirely confined to the narrow gorge of the Wed. Mr. O. Salvia

11?

«J

speaks of it (Ibis, 1859, p. 353) as being especially numerous in the Regency of Tunis ; and
Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt-Drake found it everywhere numerous in Tangier and Eastern Morocco.

The various authors on the ornithology of the Canaries record it thence ; and Dr. Carl
Bolle says (J. f. O. 1855, p. 173) that it is the commonest game bird in the Canaries, and is
wanting only on Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, as well as Palma, though in the latter place it
would be supposed that it should occur, as every requisite for its existence is found there ; and
he further writes (J. f. O. 1857, p. 333) that it is common in the Pinal of Teneriffe, even on the
cumbre and in the elevated dry canadas, and breeds amongst the bushes at the foot of the
Teyde. Mr. Godman names that he frequently saw them exposed for sale in the market-place
at Santa Cruz.

In its habits this bird assimilates to the Eed-legged Partridge; but Loche says that it
prefers uncultivated soil to localities which have been under cultivation, and the seeds of wild
plants to cereals. It feeds on seeds, insects, and caterpillars, and obtains its food generally by
scratching for it in the soil. It also feeds on tender shoots. It rarely wanders far from the
locality where it was hatched, and where found is a resident. Though usually peaceable and
somewhat shy, the males become quarrelsome during the breeding-season, and the call-note of
the female makes them forget their usual caution ; hence at that season of the year they are
frequently entrapped by means of a whistle with which the note of the female is imitated.

Its flight is heavy and whirring, like that of the other Partridges. It walks with celerity
and ease, this being its usual mode of locomotion. Like its ally (Caccabis rufa) it frequently
perches on trees or bushes, especially when suddenly disturbed. It is easily tamed, and becomes
exceedingly familiar. Loche says that it soon fraternizes with domestic poultry, and when made
a pet of will live on good terms even with the dogs and cats about the house.

It nests, like its allies, on the ground, its nest being merely a hole scratched in the soil under
shelter of a bush. Loche says that incubation lasts nineteen or twenty days, and that the female
alone undertakes the cares of incubation. The young run directly they are hatched, and are
very carefully tended and guarded by the female, who will expose herself to any danger to
preserve her progeny.

The eggs of this species closely resemble those of the common Redleg (C. rufa) both in size
and coloration ; but, judging from six specimens in my collection from Algeria, they are a trifle
more richly marked with rufous than the general run of eggs of C. rufa. Mr. Salvin says that
it deposits its eggs early in April, and that from eleven to fifteen is the usual complement.

The flesh of this Partridge is said to be much less palatable than that of the common
Redleg and the Greek Partridge ; but I have not personally been able to judge of this.

The specimen described, and figured on the same Plate with the Eed-legged Partridge, is an
adult male from Sardinia, sent to me by Count Salvadori.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

«, d,6, $. Sardinia, January 1869 (Salvadori). c,<S. Algeria, autumn, 1862 (C. A. Wright). d,%. Barbary,
February 1863 (C. A. Wright), e, j . Teneriffe, April 21st, 1871 [F. D. Godman).

114

4

E Mus. Howard Saunders.
a,6,b,%. Tangier, c, $ . Melilla, Morocco, October 8th, 1872.

E Miis. Salvin and Godman.
a, d . Teneriffe, April 18th, 1871. b, 2 ■ Teneriffe, April 21st, 1871 {F. D. Godman).

E Mus. Lord Lilford.

a,\6 . Gibraltar, September 1870 (H. L. Irby). b, 6 . Algeria, autumn of 1862 (C. A. Wright).

115

Genus AMMOPERDIX.

Caccabis apud G. R. Gray, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1843, p. 372.
Perdix apud Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 70.
Ammoperdix, Gould, Birds of Asia, pt. 3 (1851).

This genus contains only two species, Ammoperdix bonhami and Ammoperdix heyi, which are
found in the north-eastern part of the Ethiopian Region and in the western portions of the
Oriental and Eastern Palsearctic Regions, the former species occurring also in the extreme south-
eastern portion of the Western Palsearctic Region. They frequent the low hills and stony
ravines where there is but scanty vegetation, and where the colour of the sand and stones is
closely similar to that of their plumage. They are found in coveys, and are said to resemble
the Quail in their flight and the mode in which they rise when flushed ; and as they rise they
usually utter a whistle. Their ordinary note is said to be a double whistle uttered several times
in succession ; and some authors say that it reminded them of the call of some of the Red-legged
Partridges. They make a very slight nest, it being merely a depression in the ground amongst
the stones, lined with a few grass-bents and feathers ; and their eggs, which are numerous, are
uniform stone-isabelline, unmarked.

Ammoperdix bonhami, the type of the genus, has the bill moderately short, stout, about as
broad as high (or slightly broader than high) at the base, decurved from the nostrils to the point,
which is rounded and thin-edged ; nostrils basal, lateral, covered above with an exposed horny
oblong operculum ; no bare space behind the eye ; wings rather short, broad, the first and second
quills nearly equal and shorter than the fifth, the third and fourth longest ; tail short, even,
nearly concealed by the coverts ; legs moderate, the tarsus anteriorly scutellate, and without any
trace of spur behind ; toes moderate, the hind toe small ; claws compressed, curved, moderately
obtuse.

164

116

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AMMOPEEDIX BONHAMI.

(SEESEE PARTRIDGE.)

Caccabis bonhami, G. E. Gray, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1843, p. 372.
Perdix bonhami, Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 70.
Perdix griseoyularis, Brandt, Bull. Acad. St. Petersb. 1843, p. 278.
Ammoperdix bonhami (Gray), Bp. Compt. Eend. xlii. p. 882 (1856).

Figurce notabiles.
Gould, B. of Asia, iii. pi. 4 ; Des Murs, Icon. Orn. pi. 29.

<3 ad. pileo cinereo-cano, versus nucham vinaceo tincto, fronte et stria superciliari nigris : loris et plumis
auricularibus albis : corpore supra pallide cinereo-isabellino, saturate griseo et pallide fusco trans-
fasciato et punctato : remigibus primariis fuscis, omnibus praeter primum extus pallide cervino fasciatis :
secundariis et scapularibus isabellino-fusco et rufesceute isabellino fasciatis et vermiculatis : cauda,
castanea, versus apiceru griseo tincta, rectricibus centralibus dorso concoloribus : mento, capitis late-
ribus et gula cinereo-canis : colli lateribus saturate cinereis albo guttatis : pectore vinaceo : hypochon-
driis vinaceo-cinereis, plumis nigro et rufescenti marginatis : abdomine griseo-albo pallide rufescenti
tincto : subcaudalibus pallide rufescentibus : rostro aurantiaco : pedibus saturate flavis vix viridi
tinctis.

2 ad. corpore supra sicut in mare colorato, sed magis brunneo : pileo et nucha dorso concoloribus : capitis
lateribus et gula eervino-albidis, nigricante griseo fasciatis : mento fere albido : pectore et hypo-
cbondriis rufeseenti-cervinis, anguste griseo fasciatis : abdomine et subcaudalibus cervino-albidis :
rostro aurantiaco-fusco.

Adult Male (Euphrates valley, 23rd February). Crown ashy blue-grey, the hinder portion tinged with
vinous ; forehead and a line extending over and behind the eye black ; lores and ear-coverts silky white,
the latter rufous posteriorly; upper parts pale isabelline-grey indistinctly barred and freckled with
darker grey and isabelline-brownish ; primaries dusky brown, all but the first quill barred on the outer
web with buffy white ; secondaries and scapulars barred and vermiculated with isabelline-brown or
rufous-isabelline ; tail chestnut-red, becoming greyish towards the tip ; central rectrices like the back ;
chin, sides of the head, and throat blue-grey, sides of the neck dark ashy grey closely spotted with
white; breast pale vinous; flanks vinous grey, the feathers margined with black and rich rufous,
forming stripes along the sides ; abdomen greyish white tinged with pale rufous ; under tail-coverts
pale rufous; bill orange; feet and legs deep yellow inclining to greenish. Total length about 9'5 inches,
culmen 062, wing 5*15, tail 2 - 5, tarsus l - 25.

Adult Female (Euphrates valley, 17th February). Differs from the male in lacking the blue-grey, white,
and black on the head, and in being browner; crown, nape, and upper parts as in the male, but
browner and more variegated with rufous buff; sides of the head and throat buffy white barred with

118

blackish grey, the chin nearly white ; breast and flanks rufous buff, narrowly barred with dark grey ;
abdomen and under tail-coverts buffy white ; beak browner than in the male. In size rather less than
the male, culmen 06, wing 4 - 8j tail 2'25, tarsus 1'15.

This beautiful little desert Partridge is one of the Asiatic birds whose range just extends to
within the limits of the Western Palsearctic Region ; for it is only met with in the extreme south-
eastern portion, in the Euphrates valley, where it has lately been discovered by Mr. Danford to
be by no means uncommon. It is, however, found throughout Persia, in Northern India, and
in Thibet. Mr. C. G. Danford, to whom I am indebted for the loan of his series of specimens
from the Euphrates valley, sends me the following notes : — " Ammoperdix bonhami is to be found
in the valley of the Euphrates, near Biledjik, which point is probably the western limit of its
range. Though sometimes local, it is tolerably abundant, and frequents stony mountain-sides
and gullies from the level of the river to at least 1500 feet above it. It is most numerous near
cultivated ground, often occurring in company with Caccabis chukar. Its flight is quick, straight,
and short — in fact, very Quail-like ; and it utters a very distinctive note on rising. The coveys
seen were small, one of seven being the largest; but this was in February, when they had
doubtless been thinned by Hawks &c.

" We first met with them near the village of Bal-kys (honey-girl) while wandering through
the rocky valleys which probably constituted the necropolis of the ancient city of Zeugma.
Here we were startled from archaeological dreams by the sudden rise of a covey of Partridges
new to our experiences. It was then too late to follow them up ; so we returned next day, and,
by dint of hard work, managed to bag six brace.

" No bird could be more beautifully adapted to its habitat than this lovely little Partridge,
its coloration being the exact reflex of the pearly greys and fawns of the surrounding landscape.
The natives call it ' Tchil keklik,' a name which is also applied in other parts of Turkey to the
common Grey Partridge (Perdix cinerea), which it exactly resembles."

According to Mr. Blanford (E. Persia, ii. p. 274) " the Tihu is found everywhere in Persia,
except the forest-region, from the sea-level to at least 7000 feet above the sea in Southern, and
not much less in Northern, Persia. They keep much to low hills and stony ravines about the
base of hill-ranges. During the spring and summer they are found in pairs and singly ; in the
winter they are occasionally to be met with in small coveys, but by no means so frequently as
Caccabis, nor do they collect, as far as my observation extends, in equal numbers. They may
usually be seen walking quietly up stony hillsides, not running so swiftly as most Partridges,
nor caring much for concealment ; indeed when they wish to hide, it is sufficient for them to
remain still ; for their colour so closely resembles that of the sand and stones around that they
are most difficult to detect. When they rise it is much like a Quail, with a rather quick flight,
and a whistle uttered as they start. Their ordinary call is a double note repeated several times.
They are excellent eating, far superior to the dry Caccabis, and only second, if they are second,
to the Francolin."

Mr. A. O. Hume writes of this species (Stray Feathers, i. p. 226), " Common in the Salt range
and in the hills that divide the Punjab from Afghanistan, and found, but by no means in equal
numbers, in those which divide Sindh from Khelat, and again in those which run up the Mekran

119

coast. In these latter localities I fully expected to meet with the nearly allied Ammoperdix
hep, Temm. ; but though we shot several birds, they proved to be all bonhami." And this
gentleman further writes (Nests and Eggs of Ind. B. p. 541) : — " This Partridge is very common
and tame in the Salt range : a couple of dozen may be seen in a morning's walk ; and if people
are set to collect them large numbers are brought in. They are most generally seen running on
the bare rocks, or perching about the droppings of cattle on the mountain-paths ; but at Tobur,
some 2000 feet high, the rainy-season residence of the miners, who during the rest of the year
reside in the Khewra Gorge (some 700 feet above the sea), and work the neighbouring Mayo
salt-mines, I saw several pairs running about on the flat roofs of the empty houses. The males
may often be seen perched on some rocky point ; and the female in the spring, though less
commonly seen in exposed positions, will always be found close to her mate. They run very
rapidly and glidingly over the rockiest ground, rise pretty readily, and fly smartly, always, if
possible, down hill. Both iii gait and flight they remind one much of the Chukar."

Dr. Jerdon states (B. of India, ii. p. 568), this " bird is only found in the Punjab, in the
Salt range of hills, more abundant across the Indus, on the Suleiman range, near Attock, and in
the Khyber and Bolan passes ; and it is still more common in Afghanistan and Persia, whence
the original specimens were sent. It is there called 'Tee-hoo.' Gould states that it was also
brought from Thibet by Lord Gifford. Adams says that it is not found further south than the
Salt range ; but a writer in the ' Bengal Sporting Review,' on the game of Sindh, distinctly
indicates it under the name of the Bock or Barbary Partridge as found across the Indus. It
frequents rocky ground with brushwood here and there, and is often seen in company with the
Chukar, which it much resembles in habits ; is found in coveys, which, when sprung, rise with
a startling noise, and feeds much on a kind of wild thyme. The flesh is said to be delicious.
The name ' Seesee' is given from its call. Theobald found the eggs, twelve in number, of a clear
cream-colour, laid in a slight hollow among stones in the hills."

Beyond the notes above given, I find but little on record respecting the habits of Ammoperdix
bonhami. It breeds in most of the localities where it is found ; and its eggs are said to resemble
those of its ally, Ammoperdix heyi. Captain Cock, who found it nesting in the Salt range,
informed Mr. Hume (I. c.) that the nest is placed under a ledge of rock of between some stones.
He once found one under a cairn of stones that had been erected by the herdboys. " They lay,"
he says, "from eight to twelve eggs, stone cream-colour, pointed at both ends, in shape and size
resembling the eggs of Podiceps philippensis. The nest scarcely deserves the name ; a few dry
bents, one or two feathers, and a hole in the ground is all the nest they prepare for the reception
of their eggs."

Mr. Hume gives the size of the eggs of this bird as follows — length from 1*3 to T5, breadth
1*0 to IT, the average of twenty being T4 by 1*03.

The specimens figured are an adult male and female from the Euphrates valley, both of
which are in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

120

4

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a, J , b, J . Euphrates valley, February 1879 (C. G. Danford). c, 6 , d, 2 . Murdan, February 1871.

E Mus. C. G. Danford.

a, b, c, 6 , d, e, 2 . Biridjik, Euphrates valley, February 17th, 1879. /, g, h, 3 , i, 2 . Roum Kaleeh, Euphrates
valley, February 20th, 21st, and 22nd, 1879 (C. G. D.).

121

Germs FRANCOLINUS.

Perdix apud Brisson, Orn. i. p. 245 (1760).
Tetrao apud Linnseus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 275 (1766).
Francolinus, Stephens in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xi. p. 319 (1819).
Attagen apud Keyserling & Blasius, Wirbelth. Eur. p. 65 (1840).
Chcetopus apud Swainson, fide Degland & Gerbe, Orn. Eur. ii. p. 59 (1867).

This genus includes a considerable number of species, chiefly richly coloured, as far as the males
are concerned, which inhabit the Ethiopian, Paraparetic, and Oriental Regions, only one species
being found in the Western Palsearctic Region.

They have much in common, as regards habits, with the common Partridge. They frequent
dry rush-beds near water, plains where there is plenty of shelter in the way of scrub, and sandy
dry localities. They rise with a quick whirring flight, and fly direct and tolerably swiftly, but are
as easy to hit on the wing as a Quail. They feed on seeds, shoots, and insects, which they pick
up from the ground ; and, unlike the Pheasants and Red-legged Partridges, they never perch
on trees. They walk and run with ease, and, like the Red-legged Partridges, will often run for
some distance in preference to seeking safety in flight. They make their nests on the ground,
merely scratching a hole in the soil in some well-covered place, which they line with a few
grass-bents, and deposit numerous eggs, which are of a peculiar bufly-brown colour and have a
few small white shell-markings scattered over the surface.

Francolinus vulgaris, the type of the genus, has the bill rather long, the culmen at the base
dividing the frontal plumes, gradually decurvecl to the point, which is narrow and rounded and
considerably overlaps the lower mandible ; nostrils lateral, basal, placed in the lower anterior
part of the nasal depression, and covered by a hard rounded scale ; wings moderate, broad and
rounded, the first quill shorter than the sixth, the fourth and fifth longest, the secondaries as
long as the primaries ; tail short, slightly rounded, nearly concealed by the coverts ; legs strong,
tarsus rather long and stout, anteriorly scutellate, armed in the male with a tubercle behind ;
hind toe short, anterior toes moderate, united at the base by a membrane; claws moderate,
slightly curved, moderately sharp.

165

199

J- '-^s At*

473

FRANCOUN

FRANCOLINUS VULGARIS

12-

eJ

FBANGOLINUS VULGAKIS.

(FRANCOLIN.)

The Francolin, Edw. Glean. Nat. Hist. v. p. 75, pi. 246 (1758).

Perdix francolinus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 245, pi. xxiii. fig. 2 (1760).

Tetrao francolinus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 275 (1766).

Francolinus vulgaris, Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xi. p. 319 (1819).

Perdix heplurnioe, Gray, 111. Ind. Zool. pi. 55 (1832).

Attag en francolinus (L.), Keys. & Bias. Wirbelth. Eur. p. 65 (1840).

Francolinus tristriatus, Bp. Compt. Bend. xlii. pp. 882, 953 (1856).

Francolinus asia?, Bp. ut supra (1856).

Francolinus henrici, Bp. ut supra (1856).

Choetopus francolinus, Swains, (ubi 1 ?) fide Degl. & Gerbe, Orn. Eur. ii. p. 59 (1867).

Francolino, Italian ; Turatz, Turkish.

Figura? notabiles.

Edwards, Gleanings, pi. 246 ; D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 147, 148 ; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces,
pi. 11 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 259.

d ad. pileo et nucha fuscis, centraliter nigricantibus : pilei postici lateribus et nucha ima albo notatis : torque
collari ferrugineo-castaneo : collo imo postico nigro, albo notato : dorso, scapularibus et tectricibus
alarum nigro-fuscis, ochraceo et ochraceo-albo notatis : remigibus nigro-fuscis, rufescenti-ochraceo
fasciatis : uropygio et supracaudalibus nigris, albo fasciatis : cauda, nigra, versus apicem immaculate et
alibi albo fasciata : capitis lateribus, gula, gutture et pectore nigris : plaga magnti suboculari alba :
abdomine rufescente, albido notato et fasciato : hypochondriis nigris, conspicue albo guttatis : sub-
caudalibus castaneis, albo apicatis : rostro nigro : iride brunnea : pedibus rufescenti-aurantiacis.

2 ad. pileo, nucha et corpore supra sordidioribus, torque collari nulla, sed collo postico rufescenti-castaneo :
uropygio et supracaudalibus saturate fuscis, pallide brunneo vermiculatis et marmoratis et albido
fasciatis : cauda ut in mare, sed vix fusco marmorata. : capitis lateribus albidis, nigricanti notatis : stria
superciliari albida : mento et gula superiore albis, corpore reliquo subtus albo ochraceo lavato et con-
spicue nigricanti fasciato et notato : subcaudalibus castaneis, versus apicem pallide brunneo et nigro
notatis.

Adult Male (Meander valley, Anatolia, February). Crown and nape wood-brown, the feathers having
blackish centres, which are largest on the forehead ; sides of the hind crown and lower nape marked
with white ; a broad collar round the neck rich chestnut-red ; hind neck below this black, spotted with
white; back, scapulars, and wing-coverts blackish brown, varied with bright ochreous and whitish
ochreous ; quills blackish brown, broadly barred with rufescent ochreous ; rump and upper tail-coverts
black, narrowly and distinctly barred with white ; tail black, more broadly barred, except towards the
tip, with white; sides of the head black with a long white patch below and behind the eye; chin,

124

throat, except where crossed by the chestnut collar, and breast deep black ; flanks black, very boldly
spotted with white; abdomen rufous, varied and barred with dull white; under tail-coverts rich chest-
nut-red, tipped with white ; bill black ; iris hazel-brown ; legs dull reddish orange. Total length about
14 inches, culmen l - 0, wing 69, tail 4"1, tarsus 2"2.

Adult Female (Arpasa valley, Anatolia, January) . Crown, nape, and upper parts generally much duller than
in the male ; the hind neck is chestnut-red, but this colour is not continued round the neck ; rump and
upper tail-coverts dark brown, irregularly vermiculated or marbled with light brown, and barred with
brownish white ; tail as in the male, but rather more irregularly barred, and slightly marbled with
brown ; sides of the head white, marked with blackish ; a broad streak over the eye dull white ; chin
and upper throat pure white ; rest of the underparts white, washed with ochreous, and broadly barred
or blotched with blackish ; under tail-coverts chestnut-red, marked with pale brown, and black towards
the tip. Culmen 095, wing 6 - 8, tail 4 - 0, tarsus 2'0.

Obs. I cannot find any difference in specimens from India and Asia Minor, except in size, the former being
rather smaller than the latter ; but the single example in Lord Lilford's collection from Sicily is unusually
small, even much less than Indian specimens. The average measurements of adult males are as follows,
viz. : — from Anatolia, wing 6'9, tail 4'0, tarsus 215 ; from Sindh, wing 6 - 2, tail 4 - 0, tarsus 2 - l ; and
from Sicily, wing 5 - 4, tail 3"55, tarsus T8.

The Francolin inhabits Asia Minor, Palestine, the island of Cyprus, ranging eastward into India.
Now no longer found anywhere in Europe proper, except in the island of Cyprus, where it is
common, it appears still to be very generally distributed in Asia Minor, where, Dr. Kruper says,
it is resident, and is not uncommon in the swampy portions in the southern districts. It never
occurs in the immediate vicinity of Smyrna, but is met with at Scala Nova, near Old Ephesus.
Mr. C. G. Danford informs me, " it appears to be fast disappearing in Asia Minor. In Smyrna
it used to be found in the marshes of the Hermus, and in the neighbourhood of Ephesus, but is
now, I believe, extinct in both these localities. We first met with it (January 1874) in the
rushy tracts on the banks of the Arpasa, a tributary of the Meander. There it was by no
means common. And higher up the country, in the extensive marshes near the ruins of
Hierapolis, where it is said to have been formerly abundant, it now seems no longer to exist.
At the mouth of the Meander, near the village of Domahtea, we again found Francolins, and
killed, by dint of a good deal of work among the rushes and oleander bushes, about ten brace.
On the sea-coast plains, more to the south-east, it is not so scarce, being tolerably common near
Adalia, and reported still more plentiful in other districts." It is found in Palestine, and is,
Canon Tristram writes (Ibis, 1868, p. 212), "very abundant on the plain of Gennesaret, where
the coveys conceal themselves among the thickets of jujubes, especially near water. We also
frequently heard and sometimes saw it on the plains of Acre and Huleh, and on the lower
grounds of Esdraelon, near the Jordan. But it never voluntarily leaves its cover. Its flight is
heavy, rather like that of a Grouse ; and it is perhaps the easiest of all game-birds to shoot on
the wing. There were seldom more than three or four together ; but I have frequently found
half a dozen parties within call of each other. The cock bird begins to call from the middle of
a grass-field at the early dawn ; and the cry is taken up and answered on all sides in an instant.
It is a very peculiar note, never forgotten when once heard, something like chuck, chuck, tee-

125

tee-tor. The nest is very difficult to find, and I never succeeded in discovering it myself ; but
some of our Arabs once brought in a sitting of eggs, all of which they succeeded in smashing as
they carried them in their cloaks." Eastward the JFrancolin is found in Armenia and Persia.
Mr. Blanford informs me that he only met with the Francolin in the better-wooded parts of
Baluchistan, up to an elevation of about 2000 feet, and on the banks of the Shat-el-Arab, near
Bussorah ; but he believes that it occurs in places all along the coast of Southern Persia. To
this Major St. John adds that "it is found in the warm plains of Southern Persia, and the damp
forest regions of the Caspian, but not very abundantly in the latter. The northern limit is about
Lenkoran. West of our region it is found in great numbers in the tamarisk-jungles and reed-
beds of Mesopotamia." Mr. A. O. Hume states (Stray Feathers, i. p. 226) that " in suitable
localities throughout Sindh, wherever there is water and long grass, the present species abounds.
About Kusmore, on the bank of the Indus, they swarm, and on the road between Shikarpore
and Sukkur they run backwards and forwards across the road in front of you as our Pheasants
do in Norfolk." According to Dr. Jerdon it is found throughout the whole of Northern India,
from the Himalayas to the valley of the Ganges, but does not, that I am aware of, extend to
any distance beyond the valley of the Ganges, until above Allahabad, beyond which it passes
to the Punjab, and southwards through Rajpootana to Sindh and perhaps to Goozrat. East-
ward it extends through Dacca to Assam, Sylhet, and Tipperah ; but I have seen no record of its
occurrence further south in this direction, and it is replaced in Burmah by an allied species. It
occurs south of the Ganges, between that river and the Hooghly ; and I have seen notices of the
Black Partridge having been shot in Midnapore and Cuttack ; but it is certainly rare south of the
Ganges." Mr. Blyth states, on the authority of Captain Beavan, that it is tolerably common in
Maunbhoom, where Francolinus pictus is not met with ; and Dr. Leith Adams says that it is
common in cultivated localities in the lesser ranges, but is never found in the valley of Cashmere
or Ladak.

There appears no doubt that the present species formerly existed in Spain, Sardinia, Sicily,
and the Greek archipelago ; but it is now quite extinct in those localities, and, as above stated,
the only portions of the "Western Palsearctic Region where it occurs are the islands of Cyprus,
Asia Minor, and Palestine. Lord Lilford, in an exhaustive article on the present species (Ibis,
1862, pp. 352-356), clearly shows that it was then undoubtedly extinct in every portion of
Europe proper, except in Cyprus, and that Dr. Bree had no ground for his statement that when
he wrote his first edition it still inhabited various portions of Southern Europe. Messrs.
Salvadori and Doderlein have sought to prove that the extinction of the present species in Sicily
is of very late date ; and the latter refers to one having been eaten at a dinner at Terranova in
1869 ; but no recently killed example, or even feathers of one, sufficient for identification, have
been forthcoming, in spite of a heavy reward offered for a specimen ; and it may therefore be
reasonably doubted whether the occurrences recorded really referred to the present species. I
need not, however, reproduce the mass of information collected by his Lordship in confirmation
of his statement, but may remark that he appears to disbelieve that it ever occurred in Malta,
though this island is named by Temminck and Schlegel as one . of the localities where it used
formerly to be met with. He adds, however, one locality which appears to have been previously
omitted, viz. Spain, and writes (torn. cit. p. 354) as follows : — " It is remarkable that neither

126

Temminck, Degland, nor Schlegel should cite Spain as a locality for our bird, as, though now
extinct in that country, it was formerly common in certain favourable localities, especially the
neighbourhood of the Lake of Albufera, near Valencia : vide ' Catalogo de las Aves de la Albu-
fera,' by Vidal, who, referring to the work published by Escolano, on the fauna of the Province
of Valencia, in 1722, says that the Francolin, — ' Muy abundante en la Dehesa en tiempo de
aquel escritor, no se encuentra ya en semejante localidad.' I saw specimens from the above-
mentioned 'Dehesa' (a sandy strip of land between the lake of Albufera and the sea) in the
Museum at Valencia in 1856, which had been killed many years previously; but during a long
day spent wandering about the Albufera, gun in hand, and after inquiries amongst the fishermen
and cazadores of the place, I could only discover that, to use a Spanish proverb, the Francolins
were ' idos y muertos y no tienen amigos.' Olina, to whom I have before referred, mentions the
abundance of Francolins in Spain in his time, and tells us that they particularly affected plains
overgrown with ' ramerino e spigo.' I have been assured that Francolins were common many
years ago near Tangier."

Lord Lilford further remarks that Olina mentioned it as being especially abundant in the
neighbourhood of Tunis ; and a gentleman he met at Marseilles assured him that he had once,
and only once, met with and shot a pair near Philippeville, in Algeria; and I am indebted to him
for the following notes : — " Since writing my paper on the extinction of this species in Europe
(Ibis, 1862, p. 352), and my controversy with Dr. Bree as to whether Cyprus could legitimately
be termed Europe, I have visited that island with the especial object of seeing the Francolin in
his native haunts, and as far as possible becoming personally acquainted with his habits and
economy. Before going into details on the subject I may as well say that the main facts in my
paper above mentioned are perfectly correct, with the exception of the entire extinction of the
bird in Sicily, as proved by Mr. Howard Saunders, and admitted by me in my account of the
cruise of the 'Zara' in 'The Ibis;' however, I think, at all events, that for all practical purposes
we may now consider the species extinct in Europe in the usual acceptation of the term, though
1 am glad to say it is not only to be found, but is abundant, in localities which come well within
the limits indicated upon your wrappers. In the island of Cyprus the bird is by no means
scarce, though at the time of our visit (April and May) they were paired and nesting, and com-
paratively difficult to find. I was (I do not know why) always under the impression that the
Francolin almost always affects the vicinity of water; but I was speedily undeceived on this
subject. There are many localities in Cyprus in which the bird was formerly common, where it
is now no longer to be found, without any apparent cause for its disappearance ; this applies
particularly to the immediate outskirts of the town of Larnaka, where I am assured that twenty
years ago several brace might be shot in two or three hours, but where at present not a Francolin
is to be found.

" Owing to the scarcity of good harbours in Cyprus, and the consequent danger of leaving
my vessel for any length of time, I was unable to explore the island so thoroughly as I wished ;
and I know well that there are many localities in which the Francolin is common, and which I
could not visit on that account. We first met with the bird amongst the sandhills which skirt
the sea-shore a few miles to the north of the town of Famagousta and the ruins of Salamis; and
thence to the eastward, in the promontory known as the Horn of Cyprus, we found the species

127

tolerably abundant. The country in this part of the island is partially cultivated with wheat,
cotton, barley, and other cereals. We generally found the Francolin in the immediate vicinity
of cultivated ground, though never, as far as I recollect, actually in the corn. The uncultivated
portions of the country are covered with a dense scrub of lentiscus and a species of juniper,
which in some places attains a considerable height, and is very difficult to penetrate for man or
dog. We were generally guided by the cry of the male bird, which is very peculiar, consisting
of three bell-like notes which are audible at a very great distance. By the action of our dogs I
am inclined to think that the bird runs off immediately on being approached for a short distance,
and then ensconces itself in the thickest low-growing lentiscus it can find, and will not rise until
almost trodden on. In our experience the male bird invariably rose first, springing straight up
into the air with a chuckling note and a whirring of the wings resembling that of the common
Pheasant. The hen would generally rise at the shot ; in fact I hardly recollect an instance in
which we flushed the male without finding the female. I had the good fortune to find a nest
containing eleven eggs, which proved to be much incubated. This was on the 24th of April,
1875 ; the nest was placed on the ground in the centre of a dense low-growing lentiscus, and
consisted of merely a few dried grasses. The eggs were very unmistakable.

" I observe that Dr. Bree, in his second edition of the ' Birds of Europe ' (iv. p. 143), quoting
from Sig. Benoit's work, says that the Francolin makes its nest under birches and other bushes.
This strikes me as an extraordinary statement, as, though I am no botanist, I can hardly conceive
the existence of the birch in any locality inhabited by the Francolin.

" We also met with the Francolin in Cyprus, in the neighbourhood of Baffo, the ancient
Paphos, and often heard it near Limasol, though in this locality we could never induce it to rise.
We found nothing in the crops of these birds but the remains of coleopterous insects and a few
minute seeds. I was assured that within the last twenty years this species was exceedingly
common on the island of Rhodes, where it is now entirely extinct. We often heard the cry of
the Francolin after dark at night. • From my own observation I can fully confirm Sig. Benoit's
statement as to the present species not perching, as it is stated to do by several authors."

I am indebted to Mr. C. G. Danford for the following notes on the habits of this species : —
"Francolins appear to prefer dry rush-beds near water; but where such cover is not to be had
they will frequent ground where there is plenty of bush and myrtle scrub, and may often be
found at a considerable distance from water, but, according to my experience, invariably on the
plains. We always saw more hens than cocks ; but that may arise from the former not being
quite such runners as the latter. They are both difficult enough to flush, and especially so in
dull weather, when it was often the work of hours to get them up from the rush cover, although
sharply pushed by the dogs all the time. When they do take to the wing it is with a quick
whirring flight, which generally begins with a short perpendicular rise, and is afterwards straight,
level, and not long sustained. They are about as easy to shoot as a Quail of the same size would
be ; even a Turk with his long gun can hit them flying, a circumstance much against their
chances of multiplying. The flesh is delicate and good, but has not a strong game flavour. The
weights of a full-grown male and female were 1^ lb. and 1 lb. respectively. The crops of those
which I examined contained various insects, barley-seeds, and green vegetable substances."

I am indebted to the liberality of Lord Lilford for two eggs of the Francolin, obtained by

z

128

6

himself in Cyprus. They are warm buffy brown in colour, very much browner than any eggs of
the common Partridge I have seen, and have peculiar and very characteristic small white shell-
blotches scattered over the surface. In size they measure Iff by 1^. and lf-§ by 1^ inch
respectively.

The specimens figured are an adult male and female from Anatolia, presented to me by
Mr. C. G. Danford, and are those above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mns. II. E. Dresser.

a, d , b,2 , Arpasa valley, Anatolia, January 1874 (C. G. Danford). c, g. Meander valley, Anatolia, February
1874 (C. G. D.). d. Bussorah, December 16th, 1871 (TV. T. Blanford). e. Near Sakhar, Upper Sindh,
March 23rd, 1875 (TV. T. B.).

E Mus. Lord Lilford.

a, d ad. Sicily. /;, c, d ad. Near Trikporno, Cyprus, April 24th, 1875. d, <$ . Near Ghalinopori, April 26th,
1875. e, J. Livadhia, April 23rd, 1875. /, g, d , h, ? . Near Rhizokarpaso, Cyprus, April 29th, 1875.
i, d. Moulia, Cyprus, May 12th, 1875 (Lilford).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, d ■ N. India (Marshall), b, c, 2, d, e,f, d. Kurrachee, Sindh (TV. B. Muloch).

129

Genus PERDIX.

Perdix, Brisson, Orn. i. p. 219 (1760).

Tetrao apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 276 (1766).

Starna apud Bonaparte, Cornp. List, p. 43 (1838).

The true Partridges are restricted to the Paleearctic Region, only one species being found as a
resident in the western division of that region.

They are amongst the best-known and most valued of our game-birds, and are found in
cultivated ground and open localities where there is scrub or other cover. They walk with ease,
consort together in coveys, and when flushed rise with a whirring sound. Their flight is swift,
direct, and strong ; and they will sometimes traverse considerable distances, though they generally
prefer to drop into the nearest available cover. They feed on seeds, shoots, insects, &c, which
they pick up on the ground. They never perch, like their Red-legged allies, on trees, but, like
them, are fond of dusting and sunning themselves in warm, sandy places. They nest on the
ground, their nest being a depression scratched in the soil and lined with grass &c, and deposit
numerous pale olivaceous-brown eggs. The young when hatched are able to run about, and to
pick up food for themselves, but are for some time carefully tended by their parents.

Perdix cinerea, the type of the genus, has the bill short, stout, depressed towards the tip,
which is rounded and sharp-edged ; nostrils basal, lateral, operculate, linear in front, circular
behind, the nasal groove broad and feathered ; a small space behind the eye bare ; wings short,
broad, curved, the first quill shorter than the sixth, the third longest ; tail short, rounded ; legs
strong, rather short, the tarsus anteriorly scutellate, the males having usually a knob behind ;
toes stout, the hind toe small, elevated, the anterior ones webbed at the base ; claws moderate,
curved, with convex ridge, rather obtuse.

.66

130

474

ENeale Mh.

Hanhart imp.

PARTRIDGE.

PERDIX CINEREA.

475

E.Tleale lith.

Haivhart. imp.

PARTRIDGE.

FEMALE & YOUNG.

13

PERDIX CINEREA.

(PARTRIDGE.)

Perdix cinerea, Briss. Orn. i. p. 219 (1760).

Perdix cinereo-alba, Briss. Orn. i. p. 223 (1760).

Perdix damascena, Briss. Orn. i. p. 223 (1760).

Perdix montana, Briss. Orn. i. p. 224 (1760).

Tetrao perdix, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 276 (1766).

Perdrix; grise, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 401 (1771).

Perdrix grise-blanche, Buff. torn. cit. p. 415 (1771).

Petite Perdrix grise, Buff. torn. cit. p. 417(1771).

Perdrix de montagne, Buff. torn. cit. p. 419 (1771).

Tetrao damascenus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 758 (1788, ex Briss.).

Tetrao montanus, Gmel. ut supra (1788, ex Briss.).

Perdix cinerea, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 645 (1790, ex Briss.).

Perdix damascena (Gm.), Lath. torn. cit. p. 646 (1790).

Perdix montana (Gm.), Lath, ut supra (1790).

Perdix vulgaris, Leach, Syst. Cat. B. & M. Brit. Mus. (1815).

Perdix cineracea, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 525 (1831).

Starna cinerea (Lath.), Bp. Comp. List, p. 43 (1838).

Perdix sylvestris, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 267(1855).

Perdix minor, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Starna perdix (L.), Bp. Cat. Parzud. p. 13 (1856).

Perdrix grise, French ; Starna, Italian ; Rebhuhn, Feldhuhn, German ; Patrijs, Veldhoen,
Dutch ; Almindelig Agerhone, Danish ; Baphone, Norwegian ; ATcerhbna, Swedish ;
Turkinpyy, Peltopyy, Finnish ; Kouropatka, Bussian.

Figura? notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 27, 136 ; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 15 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 28 c;
Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 113, 114, 114 b, 115; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 30. fig. 9 ;
Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 163; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 31. fig. 5; Gould, B. of
Eur. pi. 262; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. p. 13; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 179; Bettoni, Ucc.
Lomb. i. pi. 8.

d ad. pileo, nucha et regione auriculari fuscis : fronte, stria supra oculos et gula. runs : collo postico et cor-
pore supra fusco-cinereis, rufescente fusco et saturate fusco tenuissime undulatis : tectricibus alarum
castaneo notatis, et plumis stria ochraceo-cervina centraliter notatis : remigibus fuscis ochraceo-fusco
fasciatis : uropygio et supracaudalibus castaneo transfasciatis : rectricibus centralibus ad basin cas-
taneis, versus apicem cervino-rufis, fusco vermiculatis, reliquis castaneis : gutture et pectore cinereis

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132

nigricanti tenuissime undulatis : pectore imo macule saturate castanea, formam ferri equini referente
notato : hypochondriis pectori similibus sed sordidioribus et castaneo fasciatis : abdomine imo et tibiis
cinereo-albis : subcaudalibus ochraceo-cervinis saturate cinereo vermiculatis : pedibus cinereis, rostro
cinereo-albo : iride fusca.

$ ad. mari similis sed minora corpore supra saturatiore, pileo ochraceo-fusco guttata, area rufa in gula minore
et hypochondriis magis transfasciatis.

Adult. Male (England, 1st February) . Crown, nape, and ear-coverts warm brown ; forehead, a broad stripe
over the eye, sides of the head, chin, and upper throat orange-chestnut; behind the eye is a small
naked patch of red skin; hind neck and back brownish grey, vermiculated with reddish brown and
dark brown ; wing-coverts similar, but marked with chestnut, and each feather with a central ochreous-
buff shaft-stripe ; primaries brown, barred with ochreous brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts like the
back, but banded with chestnut; central rectrices chestnut-red at the base, becoming buffy red,
vermiculated with brown towards the tip ; rest of the tail uniform chestnut-red ; lower throat and
breast light blue-grey, finely vermiculated with dark grey ; lower breast with a rich, dark chestnut
horseshoe-shaped patch ; flanks duller than the breast, and barred with chestnut ; lower abdomen and
thighs greyish white; under tail-coverts yellowish buff, finely vermiculated with dark greyish; legs
and feet dull brownish grey, with a bluish tinge ; bill bluish white ; iris hazel-brown. Total length
about 12 - 5 inches, culmen - 75, wing 6'1, tail 3 - 95, tarsus 1"75.

Adult Female (England) . Eather smaller than the male ; upper parts darker and browner, and more
marked with brown and buff; the light chestnut on the throat covers a smaller area; the chestnut
patch on the breast is small, not being assumed before the second or third year ; and the bars on the
flanks are broader.

Young in first autumn (Aboyne) . Upper parts as in the female, but duller, and more variegated with brown ;
neck spotted with ochreous; no chestnut patch on the breast, this part being dull whitish.

Young in down. Upper parts yellowish rust-brown, marked with reddish and blackish brown; crown
marked with a couple of dark stripes ; and the markings form also stripes on the sides of the back ;
throat and underparts yellowish white on the flanks, washed with rusty yellow ; bill and feet yellowish
flesh-coloured.

The Common or Grey Partridge is generally distributed throughout temperate Europe, becoming
rarer in the south ; and it does not range into North Africa. In Asia it does not extend very far
from the confines of Europe, and is replaced in Eastern Asia by Perdioc barbata.

Throughout Great Britain the Partridge is very generally distributed, being, however, much
less common in uncultivated localities ; and it is rather less numerous in the north of Scotland
than it is in the lowlands and in England. All through England it is very common ; but its
numbers vary considerably according to the state of the weather during the breeding-season, and
it is more numerous in some counties than in others according as the soil is favourable or not.
Mr. Cecil Smith informs me that it has been introduced and has bred in the little island of
Herm, near Guernsey; but, unless closely preserved, it will soon become extinct there again. In
Norfolk and the eastern counties it has to contend for existence with the Ked-legged Partridge,
which would probably oust the present species in the struggle for existence were it not kept
down as much as possible. In Northumberland and Durham, Mr. Hancock says (B. of North. &

133

Durh. p. 91), it is plentiful, but the stock is liable to great fluctuation in accordance with the state
of the weather: in 1870 and 1871 the supply was unusually abundant; but in 1872 there was a
great decrease in the number, apparently owing to the large rainfall of that year.

In Scotland, Mr. Eobert Gray writes (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 241), it is " plentiful throughout
all the cultivated tracts, extending from the Mull of Galloway — where several broods are found
annually on a patch of enclosed ground belonging to the Lighthouse Commissioners, and over-
looking the highest cliffs — to Cape Wrath. On the mainland it seems to have followed naturally
upon the reclamation of waste land and the introduction of husbandry ; but it does not appear
to have ventured beyond the circle of the Inner Hebrides, where it is probably confined to three
islands, viz. Islay, Mull, and Skye." According to Messrs. Baikie and Heddle it has of late years
been successfully introduced into the islands of Bousay and Shapinshay, in Orkney.

It is found in Ireland, as in England and Scotland, chiefly on cultivated soil, but only in
moderate numbers ; and Thompson states that it has never prevailed to the extent that it has in
many parts of England and Scotland.

Neither in Greenland nor Iceland, nor yet in the Faeroes does the Partridge ever appear to
have occurred ; but it is tolerably common in some parts of Scandinavia. Mr. Eobert Collett
informs me that it is said to have first migrated to Norway in 1744 from Bohuslan, in Sweden ;
but though this is the first recorded occurrence, it is very possible that some arrived from there
long previously to that. In that year (1744) a covey penetrated as far as Christiania ; and within
the next year or two these birds penetrated further ; but before the beginning of the next century
they appeared to have vanished. About 1811 another migration took place in about the same
district; and they then spread over a large portion of Southern Norway. As a rule, however, the
Partridge is only found in small numbers in that country ; for it runs the risk of being extermi-
nated every winter, either by the cold or by the birds of prey, especially the Hooded Crow and
Goshawk, both of which commit great ravages amongst them in the winter season, the Goshawk
remaining near a covey until it has killed every bird.

In his Notes on the Ornithology of Norway, Mr. Collett says : — " This species, which in
the autumn of 1862 was even abundant in the lower south-eastern districts, disappeared almost
entirely the ensuing winter, and has since then occurred in small numbers only here and there in
the south-eastern lowlands. In some localities, Fredrikshald for instance, the general opinion is
that Astur palnmlarius destroys more birds of this species than are killed off by the winter cold,
their numbers being kept up only by immigration from Bohuslan. Attempts to acclimatize this
bird have been made in the neighbourhood of Stavanger and Trondhjem, to which localities the
species can hardly have penetrated of itself. Near the latter town thirty brace were turned out
into the fields (I believe in 1860), and at first appeared to thrive pretty well. In the autumn of
1862 individuals were observed as far north as Levanger, near which town a large covey, flying
in a northerly direction, was seen on the 15th November. Although their numbers must have
been thinned very considerably by the rigorous winter of 1862, some appear to have survived,
coveys having been observed in 1865 and 1866 in Indherred (64°), in 1867 in Borsen, in 1872 in
Orkedalen and Stod, districts situated on the northern and southern shores of the fjord. Seven
individuals, procured from Spain, were turned out in the neighbourhood of Stavanger in 1862.
The following year a brace was observed ; but nothing more has been seen of them. On the

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134

Rosendal estate, in Hardanger, a similar attempt was made, and with the same result. As regards
the distribution of this species in a vertical direction, it may be observed that a covey of eight or
ten birds was seen in the autumn of 1860 at Nystuen, on the Fillefjeld, at an altitude of 3200 feet
above the sea."

It is said that the Partridge was introduced into Sweden about the year 1500 ; but Sundevall
doubts this, and believes that it must have occurred there previously to that. It is found
throughout that country in suitable localities up to the plains of Upland, and possibly to Gefle,
and in the lowlands to 60° N. lat. ; but in favourable seasons it ranges further north, and increases
until a severe winter again destroys them. It has been seen in numbers in Helsingland and the
southern portion of Dalecarlia ; and small coveys have appeared in the Herjedale, and in Svegs
parish in 62° N. lat. Stragglers have also been seen in Upper Medelpad, and even in Norrbotten.
I am indebted to Dr. Sundstrom for the following notes respecting the range of the Partridge in
Sweden, viz. : — " Of late the Partridge has penetrated much further north than when Nilsson,
in the third edition of his work on the birds of Scandinavia, gave Helsingland as the northern

o

boundary of its range. Since then it has penetrated into Angermanland, whence several are
sent every year to Stockholm in the sledge-loads of game. The game-dealers there at first
looked on it as an almost valueless small bird. Even further north it has been seen; for it
was obtained at the Gylgen iron-works in Ofver-Kalix parish (in 66° 15' N. lat.), and a covey of
about a dozen is said to have remained there during the winter of 1862-63, resorting to the
garden of the works, where they were regularly fed. There is no reason to believe that they

O

were turned out there ; they probably came from Angermanland. In many parts of Jemtland
the Partridge is now by no means rare. In 1845 a covey is said to have resorted to a rye-field
near Hammardal church, about six Swedish miles north-west of Ostersund ; and in 1860 notice
was taken of some strange birds which were caught in the Ptarmigan-snares, and which were
supposed to be a variety of the Hazel Grouse, or hybrids, but which proved to be Partridges.
Since then it has become commoner and better known in Jemtland, and is most numerous about

o

Storsjon and Locknesjon, whence it ranges westward to the fells, to Areshuta and Kails parish,
about 1700 feet above the sea, whence there is but little arable land, and chiefly forest and bare
damp fields. During the last ten years it bred regularly round Storsjon and Locknesjon in spite
of a cold winter in 1867-68 followed by a late and severe spring, which is the more remarkable
because in Central and Southern Sweden in a severe winter, as in 1860, they get decimated, and
even in some places killed out. From this it would appear that neither the severe cold of 1867,
when during three weeks the thermometer ranged between 30 and 40 degrees of frost, nor the
dense masses of snow cause the great mortality amongst these birds, which must arise from some
other cause, probably want of food and ravages caused by birds of prey and men ; for during the
severe cold these birds are more easily obtained." In Finland, Dr. Palmen writes (Finl. Fogl. ii.
p. 49), its range is very irregular; for in some seasons it is found up to 65° N. lat., where it soon
disappears during cold winters, and between 1860 and 1870 it nearly disappeared, but in 1871 it
began to increase again. Dr. Palmen gives numerous instances of its occurrence throughout the
country up to Uleaborg, where it has been seen in tolerable numbers, but has since disappeared,
and one only was seen in the early part of the winter of 1871. Of late years it has also dis-
appeared from Sotkamo, where it formerly occurred, as also in Kajana, and up to Hyrynsalmi

135

(in 65° N. lat.). The Eev. J. Fellman also says that it has been seen and captured in Kuusamo
(in 66° N. lat.) ; but north of that it does not appear to have been met with. When in Finland,
many years ago, I frequently saw it near Wyburg, where it did not appear to be rare.

In Eussia it ranges tolerably far north. Meves says that he was informed that it occurs in
Wuitegra; and according to Kessler it has only lately spread into the Olonetz Government.
Mr. Sabanaeff says that it is gradually, but surely, extending its range northward, and it is now
found in the south-western portions of the Vologda Government, in that of Kostroma, and
throughout the southern portions of the Viatka and Perm Governments, where, not long
previously, it was scarcely known. It breeds in the cultivated portions of the south-eastern and
south-western slopes of the Ural, and has of late years reached Tagila. Teplouhoff says that it
breeds sparingly on the Obva in 58-|° N. lat. Throughout the whole of Poland, Mr. Taczanowski
says, it is very common and resident.

In Germany it is resident, and very generally distributed throughout the country, except in
the more mountainous districts ; and Mr. Jonas Collin says that it is common and resident
throughout the whole of Denmark, except Bornholm, but during severe winters it is to some
extent migratory. Mr. H. M. Labouchere informs me that it is found throughout Holland,
being, however, most numerous on the dunes, which are partially wooded and clothed with
brushwood, but it is likewise met with on the moors. In Belgium it is common in the moister
and more fertile portions of the country, but rarer in the arid districts ; and in France it is very
common in the northern and central departments, but rare in the south, where it is replaced by
the Red-legged Partridge. In Portugal it is extremely rare. Professor Barboza du Bocage does
not include it in his list; but the Eev. A. C. Smith (Ibis, 1868, p. 450) states that a specimen
was obtained and sent to the Lisbon Museum just before he visited that town ; and in Spain it
is, according to Mr. Howard Saunders (Ibis, 1871, p. 223), " almost unknown south of the Sierra
Morena and, I might say, south of the Guadarrama range. One specimen is in the Murcia
collection." Colonel Irby informs me that it is found in Liebena, in the province of Santander ;
and Dr. A. E. Brehrn states also that it replaces the Eed-legged Partridge in Asturia, Leon.
Upper Catalonia, and here and there in Arragon. In Savoy it is said to be, to some extent,
migratory, and to some extent resident ; and it is found throughout Italy, except in the Medi-
terranean islands. It has been stated to have occurred in Sardinia and Sicily, but apparently
without valid reasons. Mr. A. B. Brooke states (Ibis, 1873, p. 335) that a good sportsman
assured him that he had shot the common Partridge in the north of Sardinia, but he himself
never saw a specimen; and neither Doderlein nor Benoit ever succeeded in obtaining it in
Sicily. It appears to be less numerous in Southern Germany than it is in the north; but
Dr. A. Fritsch says that as the forests are by degrees cut down and the country becomes more
cultivated it increases in Bohemia. He gives the total number of Partridges returned as shot in
Bohemia in three years as follows :— in 1857, 301159 ; in 1863, 536806 ; and in 1864, 586195 head.
The Eitter von Tschusi-Schmidhofen states, in his Notes on the Ornithology of the Riesengebirge,
that "Partridges were observed by the gamekeeper at the Tannenstein in 1865, and near St.
Peter in 1867; at the latter place several specimens were killed. It occurs only occasionally in
autumn." In Transylvania, according to Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown (Ibis, 1875, p. 417),
it is " generally distributed on the low ground, but is not numerous. Herr Buda Adam shot one

136

at Urik Burlea, behind the Retjezat, at an elevation of about 6000 feet. There was a covey;
and they had, no doubt, been bred there." It occurs in the countries skirting the Danube ; and
Messrs. Elwes and Buckley say (Ibis, 1870, p. 328) that it is " by far the commonest game-bird
both in Macedonia and Bulgaria. Very good bags are often made on the plains, as soon as the
harvest is got in ; and even the natives, who at present are armed with flint muskets five feet
long, manage to slaughter a good many. Though the Turks, as a nation, care very little about
sport, or any thing requiring exertion, yet villagers who are excellent pot-hunters and capital
shots are sometimes found." Dr. Kriiper states that it is said to occur on the northern frontiers
of Greece, but is unknown elsewhere in that country. Colonel Drummond-Hay states that it is
common in winter on the plains of Macedonia; and Lord Lilford writes (Ibis, 1860, p. 288): —
" It is common in the cultivated plains of Albania proper, in which provinces I have seen and shot
it near Antivari. In Epirus it is found in considerable numbers near Joannina, and in the plains
of Arta. I have also heard of its occurrence in the neighbourhood of Avlona, about eighty miles
north of the island of Corfu."

In Southern Russia it is abundant everywhere throughout the steppes ; and with regard to
its range in Asia Minor I am indebted to Mr. C. G. Danford for the following notes, viz. : — " As
far as my knowledge, derived from experience and hearsay, extends, the present species does not
occur on the western shores of Asia Minor, though in Roumelia it is common enough, and plenty
are to be seen in the Pera game-shops. Nor have I ever observed it either on the southern coasts
or in the varied range of country between Mersina, on the Mediterranean, and Samsoun, on the
Black Sea. Still, although P. cinerea has not come under my personal notice, I have no hesi-
tation in saying that it not only occurs in Asia Minor but is in some districts of the interior
abundant. An English gentleman who has lived for some time in that country informed me
that it was not uncommon in the province of Angora ; and my friend Mr. Wilkin, H.B.M. Vice-
Consul at Adalia, told me that when living at Isbarta, between the great lakes of Ergerdir and
Buldur, he found the Grey Partridge almost as common as the Red-leg (P. chukar). Mr. Wilkin,
as a good sportsman, was not likely to have made any mistake as to species. Again, we have
the testimony of M. Tchihatcheff, who says (Asie Mineure, vol. ii. p. 764), ' La perdrix grise et
la perdrix rouge sont fort repandues en Asie Mineure, surtout la premiere, dont mainte fois j'ai
ete a meme d'observer les nombreux essaims qui peuplent les grandes plaines de la Lycaonie et
tout particulierement la region comprise entre Kararnan et Karabounar.' This evidence makes
our not meeting with this bird rather remarkable, as Kararnan does not lie much off the route
which we lately traversed ; nor is the lake-district far from Deneslii, which we visited on a former
occasion, and in which locality we could find no trace of it, although the cultivated character of
the country, through which the Meander flows, is well suited to its habits. It would therefore
appear that the range of P. cinerea in Asia Minor is a curiously isolated one, and sharply con-
fined to the centre of the peninsula."

The present species is not known to occur in Africa, and it does not range far into Asia.
Dr. Severtzoff says that it is rare in winter in some parts of Turkestan ; and Major St. John
writes (E. Persia, ii. p. 273): — "The common Partridge is found all over Adarbaijan, possibly
extending through the Elburz as far east as Tehran. Taimur Mirza, the Shah's grand falconer,
assured me that this bird is found in the Lura or Karij valley, due north of that city." In

13

Eastern Asia the common Partridge is replaced by a tolerably closely allied but perfectly distinct
species, Perdix barbata, Verr., which differs in having the feathers on the throat long and
acuminate ; the horseshoe-shaped mark on the breast is deep black instead of dark chestnut ; and
the bird is smaller in size than our Partridge.

There are few of our British birds whose habits are better known than those of the present
species ; for it is so highly esteemed as a game-bird that almost every country gentleman is
thoroughly well acquainted with it. It usually frequents cultivated ground, or at all events
places that are tolerably free from tree-growth, such as heaths, commons, or large tracts of grass-
land, and does not resort to woods ; nor does it ever appear to affect localities where the general
growth is composed of marsh-grass, being a frequenter of the dry uplands, and not of low damp
localities. Where the soil is well cultivated it is generally found in the fields, either in grass-
fields and pastures or else in corn- or turnip-fields. During the winter season the Partridges
keep together in coveys, seeking their food in the stubbles or anywhere that suitable food is to
be had, until the early spring, when they disperse and pair to make arrangements for nidification.
The Partridge is strictly a ground-bird, never perching on a tree ; and it is very strong and swift
on foot. When in search of food it walks quietly and sedately along, rather in a stooping
attitude, the neck drawn in, and the general figure rounded ; but directly it is in the least
alarmed it stands erect, with outstretched neck, looking round to see where the clanger threatens,
and then, after giving a preliminary jerk of the tail, it starts off either on the wing or on foot,
and in the latter case runs at a great speed for some distance. It is, however, an adept at
crouching and hiding ; any corner or unevenness in the soil is enough to constitute a hiding-
place ; and it will frequently crouch so close, trusting to the similarity in coloration between the
soil and its plumage, that one may pass quite close without seeing it. When the Partridge
takes wing it rises obliquely to some height, and then flies off in a straight line with a rapid
motion of the wings, which produces a whirring sound ; and when flying some distance it will sail
along for a short space with outstretched wings, and then resume the rapid flapping motion.
It is somewhat remarkable how close a covey will keep together, even after having been
disturbed. Should a part fly off and settle down again in close cover at some distance, the
remainder, perhaps scattered and flushed singly, as soon as they rise, fly directly to the place
where their companions are, however closely concealed ; and even when thoroughly scattered they
will, when all danger is over, call each other and soon reunite. Should the old birds be shot off
with a portion of the young out of a covey, the survivors will usually join another covey, where,
after a short time, they are treated on terms of perfect equality.

The nest of the Partridge is always on the ground, generally in a grass-field, or else under
shelter of a bush, sometimes in a hedge-row, and is a mere depression scratched in the ground,
with a few dry straws as a lining : and the normal number of eggs appears to be from twelve to
sixteen ; but occasionally as many as twenty are deposited. Mr. Benzon informs me that in
Denmark a spike is often placed in the nest in such a position that the bird cannot sit, and that
it will then lay more than twenty eggs — in fact so many that the spike is covered by them.
The eggs are pale olivaceous brown in colour, and average about l\l by lf$ inch in size.

It seems probable that sometimes more than one female deposits eggs in the same nest ; for
Yarrell cites instances of twenty-eight and thirty-three eggs having been found ; and in one of the

l?JO

8

latter cases twenty-three young were hatched, and four more of the eggs were found to have fully
formed live birds in them. When the eggs are near hatching, and the bird is disturbed, it is
said to remove them ; and there are instances recorded which tend to prove that this is the case.
The young are able to run as soon as they are hatched, and hide when disturbed. Both the
male and the female tend the young, and exhibit the greatest anxiety should any danger threaten,
using every stratagem to deceive and entice away the intruder.

The Partridge is one of the most valued game-birds, and is therefore everywhere carefully
preserved. The old method of shooting over dogs is now, comparatively speaking, but little
followed, owing to the great alteration in the mode of agriculture that has taken place during
the last twenty years. Referring to this, Mr. Stevenson writes (B. of Norf. i. p. 424) as follows: —
" That those who were accustomed in the ' good old days ' to kill Partridges after this fashion,
more especially since the chief enjoyment of that time consisted in watching and profiting by
the sagacity of the dogs, should regard the present system with but little favour is natural
enough ; but why sneer at the taste of younger men who have adopted from necessity, and not
from choice, the shooting en battue of the last twenty years 1 What sport, I would ask, with
even the best-trained dogs, would be afforded now on our closely mown stubbles'? or, beyond a
few ' points ' here and there in a large field of turnips, what chance of a bag when the birds,
once alarmed, commence running in all directions along the open drills'? There is but little
harbour in our highly cultivated lands ; and the trimmed fences, in many places, afford scarcely
shelter enough for a wounded bird. The ' four-course ' system also, though a fine institution for
farming-purposes, often puts the sportsman to much difficulty, his success depending greatly on
the position of the crops — a very common answer to inquiries on any Partridge-farm, at the
commencement of the season, being ' We have plenty of birds, but the turnips lie so awkward
this year.' Under these circumstances, then, the gunners have but little chance of sport except
by walking in line with the beaters ; and unquestionably there is no comparison between the
difficulty of such shooting and that under the old system, as the birds rise unexpectedly and at
uncertain distances. By this method, now universally adopted both in the enclosed and more
exposed portions of the county, very fine shooting is obtained on the wide open heath-lands in
the western and south-western districts, when the birds, bred on the adjacent corn-lands, are
either found basking on the outskirts, or are driven on from the neighbouring stubbles. The
guns and beaters, advancing in line, drive the game forward into the nearest coverts ; and here
and there, though often at long intervals, thick belts of gorse and broom offer a fatal shelter to
the birds, and a hot fusillade and a rapid addition to the bag repay the toil of the sportsman.
Later in the season, however, when the birds become 'packed,' as it is termed (large coveys
consorting together for mutual safety), the ' driving ' system, before referred to, is now commonly
adopted for both English and French birds. This is certainly the perfection of sport for those
possessed of the necessary quickness and skill ; but to the uninitiated, at least, it is nervous work,
standing under shelter of a fence or a lift of hurdles drawn with gorse, and peering anxiously
through the prickly screen to watch the motions of the driving party. Coveys and single birds
are marked down at different points ; and presently the beaters, spreading' out in line, are coming
on. Now is the time ! never mind that noisy heart of yours, that will thump, thump, like an
eight-day clock. Keep your eyes open, grip your gun-stock tight. Whish ! Here they, come !

139

Bang! bang! And the birds, killed high in the air, fall dead some thirty yards behind the
gunners. An old hand, perhaps, bags his brace, though coming at heaven knows what an hour ;
for the pace of a Partridge thus flushed at a distance is something extraordinary. Ask the
novice, for instance, after such a flight, if he got a shot that time 1 ' Shot ! What at % I heard
you fire ; and something came with a whish past my head ; but it was gone before I turned round.'
Yet this style of shooting, which to sportsmen of the old school would have appeared an impos-
sibility, is now accomplished with such certainty by the crack shots of the day, that at Beech-
amwell, near Swaffham, towards the close of the past season, a party of guns killed four hundred
Partridges, in one day, by ' driving ' only.

" It is by no means an unusual circumstance for Partridges when flushed in the vicinity of
the telegraph-wires to fly against them in their headlong course. At Lading, where the Inter-
national telegraph crosses an extensive heath, preserved for sporting-purposes, I have known as
many as six or eight birds thus killed in one day when driven forward by the beaters ; and
Mr. Alfred Newton informs me that when shooting at Elvedon, near Thetford, he has seen five
birds killed out of a covey in the same way. They are also occasionally found dead under the
wires on foggy mornings, but this more particularly in places where the wires have but recently
been introduced."

Mr. Carl Sachse, writing from Altenkirchen, Bhenish Prussia, sends me a few notes
respecting the Partridge, which I translate as follows : — " This bird is not very numerous here ;
but in the lowlands of the Rhine it is three times as common. During severe snowy winters it
happens sometimes that they become exterminated ; and it then takes from three to five years to
restock the district. This last year they were not numerous, and I reckon that in an area of
about 7000 hectares there were only about forty coveys. They nest with us here in young woods,
in clover-, oat-, and corn-fields, &c, but never in the meadows, as they so frequently do near the
Rhine. They breed about the middle of May ; and if disturbed and the nest is forsaken, the
female makes a fresh nest, but deposits four or six eggs less than the normal number. Old
birds deposit as many as twenty-four eggs, but young ones only lay from three to twelve. • Owing
to scarcity of food they sometimes leave the district, pack in flocks of fifty to a hundred or more,
and go in search of better feeding-grounds. In October, when out shooting, I met with one
such travelling flock of about fifty, and a second of about a hundred birds ; but they were so shy
that I could not approach them ; and when they rose they flew so far that I could not mark
them down. When much disturbed they will also leave. A covey of albinoes were hatched near
here ; and being so easily seen, they were hunted after almost every day. They became so shy
that they could not be approached, and finally left altogether, and were soon after seen near
Luiz, on the Rhine, distant about twenty-four kilometres."

Varieties in plumage of the Partridge are not very uncommon. I have seen many partial
albinoes and very pale varieties, as well as peculiarly brown-marked and partially cream-coloured
birds. Mr. Hancock showed me some extremely beautiful varieties, which he has figured (B. of
North. & Durham, pis. 11, 12) ; and Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown writes to me as follows: — " I have
in my possession three specimens of this bird showing the variety with the white horseshoe-mark
on the breast. It is worthy of remark that tbis variety appears to be gaining ground and
becoming more numerous in some localities in Scotland, notably, I believe, in East Lothian. I

3b

140

10

am indebted to my friend Mr. A. Burn Murdoch for the three specimens above mentioned, which
he shot out of the same covey about the 30th October 1875, on the Gartencaber estate, in Perth-
shire. All three of these birds have the white horseshoe ; and two have chin-spots and the neck
pure white, and white superciliary marks ; the third has the ordinary brown chin- and throat-
mark and brown superciliaries. Mr. Burn Murdoch informs me that these are the first to his
knowledge that have been shot on Gartencaber. The remainder of the covey were, as far as he
could judge, similarly marked ; and he had opportunities of seeing them on several occasions. It
will be interesting to note the increase of this variety in its numbers, if it is indeed increasing."

The specimens figured are : — on the one Plate an old male and a young bird in change ; and
on the second Plate a female with young in down.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, <s ach Hampstead, February 1st, 1870 {Davy), b, 6 , c, ? . Sherringham, Norfolk, October 28th, 1876
(H. M. Upcher). d, 6 , e, %juv. Aboyne, Scotland (Waters).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.
a, 6 ad. Naples (Doderlein).

141

Genus COTURNIX.

Perdix apud Brisson, Orn. i. p. 247 (1760).

Tetrao apud Linnseus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 278 (1766).

Cotumix, Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl. et Method, i. p. 217 (1790).

Ortygion apud Keyserling & Blasius, Wirbelth. Eur. p. 66 (1840).

This genus, of which a single species inhabits the Western Palsearctic Eegion, is represented in
the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian Regions.

In habits the Quails resemble the Partridges to some extent, frequenting similar localities ; but
they are migratory, travelling often in vast flocks, and they are not usually found in coveys, but
are generally flushed singly, though several birds may be flushed one after the other in close
proximity. They walk and run with ease and great swiftness, and when disturbed will either
crouch or run in preference to taking wing. Their flight is swift, direct, and whirring like that
of the Partridge ; but they usually drop into the nearest cover again, and seek safety in conceal-
ment. They feed on seeds, insects, &c, usually feeding early in the morning and late in the
evening. Like the Partridges they are fond of resting in sunny places and dusting themselves.
They are both polygamous and monogamous ; and the males are extremely amorous and
pugnacious during the pairing-season. The nest is a mere depression scratched in the ground
and lined with a few grass-bents ; and the eggs, which are numerous, are pale brownish yellow,
blotched and spotted with dark brown.

Cotumix communis, the type of the genus, has the bill short, compressed, the upper
mandible sloping to the tip, which is narrow and sharp-edged ; head entirely feathered ; wings
rather short, full, the first and second quills about equal in length and longest ; tail short, much
rounded, the feathers weak and decurved ; tarsus stout, rather short, compressed anteriorly, and
posteriorly scutellate, but without spur or tubercle behind ; hind toe small, slender ; anterior
toes moderate ; claws slender, short, slightly curved, moderately acute.

The Virginian Colin (Ortyx virginianus) has been included in the British list ; but the
specimens killed appear to have invariably been birds which have been turned out. Several
sportsmen have imported considerable numbers of the Colin ; and they have bred in some of
our southern counties, but scarcely appear to have become permanently naturalized in any part
of the country.

167

142

476

9 o

i

""2.

ENeale lit.li.

HaxiliaTt nap.

COMMON QUAIL.
COTURNIX COMMUNIS.

148

COTUKNIX COMMUNIS.

(COMMON QUAIL.)

Perdix coturnix, Briss. Orn. i. p. 247 (1760).

Perdix coturnix major, Briss. Orn. i. p. 251 (1760).

Tetrao coturnix, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 278 (1766).

La Caille, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 449, pi. xvi (1771).

Coturnix communis, Bonnat. Tabl. Encycl. et Method, i. p. 217 (1790).

Perdix coturnix (L.), Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 651 (1790).

Coturnix dactylisonans, Meyer, Vog. Liv- und Esthl. p. 167 (1815).

Coturnix vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 45 (1828).

Coturnix major, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 527 (1831).

Coturnix media, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 528 (1831).

Coturnix minor, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 529 (1831).

Coturnix europceus, Swains. Classif. of Birds, ii. p. 344 (1837).

Ortygion coturnix (L.), Keys. & Bias. Wirbelth. Eur. p. 66 (1840).

Coturnix dactylisonans vel indicus, Hodgs. in Gray's Zool. Misc. p. 85 (1844).

Coturnix vulgaris japonica, Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, p. 103, pi. 61 (1850).

Coturnix ialdami, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 274 (1855).

Coturnix leucogenys, L. Brehm, Naumannia, p. 288 (1855).

'•'■Coturnix capensis, Licht," Gray, Hand-1. ii. p. 268. no. 9705 (1870).

"Coturnix ypsilophorus, Bosc," Gray, ut supra (1870).

Gearradh-gort, Gaelic ; Caille, French ; Codorniz, Portuguese ; Codorniz, Spanish ; Quaglia,
Italian ; Summiena, Maltese ; MeWhoua, Arabic ; Soumena, Moorish ; Wachtel, Schlag-
Wachtel, German ; Kwartel, Dutch ; Vagtel, Danish and Norwegian ; Vaktel, Swedish ;
Peltopyy, Finnish ; Perepell, Russian.

Figurce notabiles.

DAubenton, PL Enl. 170; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 16; Kjeerb. Orn. Dan. taf. 28;
Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 117; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 30. figs. 7, 8; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 166; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 31. fig. 4; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 263;
id. B. of G Brit. iv. pi. 15 ; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 180 ; Temm. & Schl. Fauna Japon.
pi. 61 ; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 261 ; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. pi. 5.

d ad. pileo nigro-fusco, ferrugineo-cervino variegate-, stria, centrali et stria utrinque in capitis lateribus cervino-
albidis : corpore supra fusco, nigro notato et striis longitudinalibus albidis vel albo-cervinis : remigibus
fuscis, cervino-brunneo fasciatis et nigro-fusco vix notatis : cauda saturate fusca, cervine- transfasciata :
capitis lateribus pallide ferrugineo-fuscis : gula et gutture cervino-albidis, mento cum gula media
nigro-fuscis, striis binis fusco-ferrugineis cinctis, quarum altera ex basi rostri, altera ex auribus

2z2

144

deseendit : gutture imo cum pectore pallide ferrugineis, lineolis longitudinalibus albidis notatis :
corpore reliquo subtus cervino-albido, hypochondriis ferrugineis cervino striatis : rostro fusco : iride
fusca : pedibus fusco-incarnatis.

2 ad. corpore supra sicut in mare picturato : gula albida, pectore maculis nigricantibus notato.

Adult Male (Leadenhall Market) . Crown and nape blackish brown, variegated with reddish buff, and with
a central and two lateral lines of buff; back, scapulars, lesser wing-coverts, and ramp warm light
brown, broadly variegated with black and dark brown, and marked with long dashes of light buff;
wings dull, rather dark brown, barred with buffy brown, and slightly marked with blackish brown ; tail
short, nearly concealed by the tail-coverts, dark brown, barred with buff; sides of the head pale brown ;
sides of the neck and the entire throat buffy white, a black patch covering the chin, and centre of the
throat having a black band at the base ; below this, again, is a rufous band, and the sides of the neck
are washed with rufous ; breast pale rufous, dashed with white ; rest of the underparts buffy white ;
the flanks rufous, with central buff stripes ; bill brownish horn ; iris brown ; legs fleshy brown. Total
length about 7 inches, culmen 0'5, wing 4'15, tail l - 6, tarsus 11.

Adult Female (Andalucia). Upper parts as in the male; but the chin and throat are buffy white, unmarked
with black, and the breast is reddish buff, spotted with blackish brown.

Young in half down (France) . Centre of the crown dark brown with a central buff stripe ; sides of the
crown warm reddish buff ; upper parts generally blackish brown, barred with warm buff, and marked
with long buffy white stripes ; chin, throat, and sides of the head buffy white ; rest of the underparts
buffy white, closely spotted with blackish brown.

Obs. The variation in the coloration, and more especially in that of the throat, of the male Quail is very
great, and has been remarked and commented on by many authors. One would certainly be inclined
to separate it into two or three species, were it not that in a series of specimens the variation exhibited
is so great as to make it impossible to draw the line anywhere. The ordinary form has the throat
buffy white or rusty buff, encircled below by two semicircular bands of a rusty brown or dark brown
colour, which join similarly coloured lines down each side of the head ; but one sees almost as frequently
specimens with the throat partially or almost entirely covered with a blackish brown or rusty brown
patch ; and another extreme form has the entire throat and sides of the head rich rusty red. This last
form is but seldom seen in Northern and Central Europe ; but I have seen examples from Southern
Europe, and it appears to be the predominant form in the Azores, Cape-Verd Islands, Mauritius, South
Africa, China, and Japan : in some of these, however, there is more or less black on ihe throat. A
specimen from Spain closely resembles examples from Japan in having the throat rusty red, but has
the rest of the plumage rather duller in colour. Examples from the Azores are much smaller than the
average of European examples, the wing measuring only 3 - 6 to 3 - 8 inches, and are rather more richly
and brightly coloured, the throat is rusty red, in some without any black, whereas in others there is a
small or large patch of blackish brown on the chin and throat.

Specimens from the Cape-Verd Islands closely resemble those from the Azores; and there is one from
Mauritius in the British Museum which is very dark in general coloration, and has a red throat. I
possess three males from Port Elizabeth, South Africa, one of which has the throat pale rufous buff, one
still lighter, and the third rich rufous, all three having the black on the throat much developed; and
the breast is more rufous than in European examples, the upper parts being much darker. A male from
Yarkand has the throat white, the two semicircular bands rusty brown, and a long blackish brown spot
on the chin ; and the upper parts are pale in coloration.

Specimens from China and Japan have the sides of the face and the entire throat rich rusty red, with but

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seldom any trace of a black spot, and are a trifle smaller in size than the average of European birds ;
and this extreme form seems almost to be the only one found in Eastern Asia. I was at first inclined
to treat this form as distinct ; but I found examples from Southern Europe, the Azores, and Mauritius
precisely agreeing with others from China and Japan.
Naumann cites all the above varieties as occurring in Germany, and says that those which have the throat
and cheeks dark rusty brown are called " Mohrenwachteln," those which have the throat banded with
dark brown on a white or a rusty yellowish ground are called " Kreuzwachteln," and those with the
black patch on the throat " Kohlh'ahne." He also adds that there is a great variation in size, some
being larger and others smaller.

The range of the Quail is very great ; for it is found throughout the whole of Europe, except in
the far north, in Asia as far east as Japan, and in Africa as far south as the Cape colony. In
Great Britain it is tolerably common, and breeds throughout the country here and there up to
the north of Scotland. Mr. A. G. More, in his article on the distribution of birds in Great
Britain (Ibis, 1865, p. 429), writes concerning it: — "Thinly scattered, during the breeding-season,
from the south of England to the very north of Scotland. Yet there are few counties in which
the Quail is considered to breed annually ; nor can these be grouped in any manner so as to show
where the species is most numerous.

" It has certainly decreased of late years in several districts, and this apparently not owing
to any cause that can be discovered. In the west of Ireland the same diminution has been
noticed. In former times I am informed that the Quail was reckoned as one of the regular
winter visitors on the west side of the sister island, but it has not been so much observed of late
years. It is still considered to breed annually about Belfast; and in county Armagh I have
myself heard its note during the breeding-season. The bird is probably better known in the
north-east of Ireland than in any part of England or Scotland.

" If there is any difference, the range of the Quail seems to incline rather to the east side
of Great Britain, as well as of Ireland, during the breeding-season. It seems to occur chiefly in
the south of England during winter." Mr. Cecil Smith informs me that, though never very
common in Somersetshire, it is found there at all seasons of the year, and he received the eggs
and the remains of a hen bird, which had been killed by a mowing-machine, in June. In Norfolk,
Mr. Stevenson says, it is far less numerous than it formerly used to be, but it breeds there in
several localities; and Mr. Cordeaux writes, respecting its occurrence in the Humber district
(B. of Humber Distr. p. 82), as follows : — " From what our oldest sportsmen have told me, I
gather that the Quail was by no means uncommon in Lincolnshire half a century since. Since
this period the drainage and improved cultivation of the marshes and fens, as well as the enclosure
and high farming of the ' wolds,' have so entirely changed the character of the district, and broken
up and destroyed their old haunts, that of late years they have been observed only as rare and
occasional visitants.

" It has occasionally been shot in East Yorkshire. On the 24th of July, 1870, Mr. Boyes
found a nest of the Quail near Beverly, containing eleven eggs, on the side of a railway embank-
ment amongst grass &c. The nest was a slight hollow containing a few dead grasses, and the
eggs laid slovenly, some on the top of the others (see Zoologist, 1870, p. 2307). Mr. Alington
some years since fell in with a large bevy in the parish of Thoresway, on our wolds.

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"Plentiful in North Lincolnshire in the autumn after the hot dry summer of 1870, the year
of the great Franco-Prussian war — in one instance three brace having been killed in one day to
a single gun, and eight brace falling during the same season to another sportsman on a farm
near Caistor, on which land two or three large bevies occurred, doubtless bred there, as several
eggs had been taken in the same locality during the summer." Mr. Hancock states that in
Northumberland and Durham it is " a spring-and-autumn migrant, not by any means common,
and somewhat local, but occasionally breeding in the district. Nests have occurred at Howick.
C'ullercoats, Fulwell, Callerton, Fell, Wallsend, and Westoe." According to Mr. Eobert Gray
(B. of W. of Scotl. p. 245) it is " a well-known visitor to the western counties of Scotland. It
breeds with us in limited numbers ; and in the autumn months it is a familiar bird in Ayrshire,
extending over the whole of the county. In many places it is called weet-my-feet on account of
its call-note resembling these words, and which may often be heard on dewy evenings in fields of
grass or stubble where grass has been sown. I have often listened to its soft chatterings on still
summer nights in situations like these near Girvan, where the Quail is by no means uncommon.
In the adjoining county of Wigton Quails appear to have been abundant about the end of last
century.

" This bird appears to be very rare in the Long Island. There is a specimen, which I have
seen, in the collection of Sir James Matheson, Bart., at Stornoway ; it was shot at Lewis, where,
I have since learned, one pair, at least, bred in 1868. When in the island of North Uist in the
beginning of August 1870, Mr. John Macdonald, Newton, showed me a nest of twelve eggs
which had been taken near his residence about ten days previously. These are now in the
collection of Captain Orde. On the east of Scotland it is by no means so common as on the
west ; still it is met with in nearly all the counties, ranging from Berwick to Orkney. In the
midland counties it is sparingly distributed, but is rare in the north. The nest of the species is
not often found. I have procured eggs from Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, Wigtonshire, and Kirk-
cudbrightshire. The nest has also been found in Mid Lothian. Mr. J. H. Dunn, of Stromness,
has informed me that on the 4th October 1851 he got eleven eggs of the Quail, that were found
by a woman when cutting grain near his house." Messrs. Baikie and Heddle state (Nat. Hist.
Ork. p. 57) that one was shot in Sanday, Orkneys, by Mr. Strang in May 1833 ; and Dr. Saxby
writes (B. of Shetl. p. 155) as follows: — "At Burrafirth, in Unst, on the 25th September 1868,
a woman brought me eight eggs which she had just found while reaping a small field of oats.
She stated that a few weeks previously she had observed a bird resembling a small Land-Kail
in the same field, but, as it suddenly disappeared, it was supposed to have been killed by a cat.
There were ten eggs originally; but two were accidentally broken on the way over the hills.
This is the only recorded instance of the occurrence of the Quail in Shetland." I may here
remark that, in his Notes on the Ornithology of Sutherland, Mr. Harvie-Brown writes as follows : —
" Amongst other records of its nesting in Caithness and Sutherland I may instance the following.
In the former county Mr. K. J. Shearer records that the Quail bred in 1860 near Ulbster, and
that ' twelve eggs were laid and hatched. I shot two of the young and the old cock in autumn.'
In Sutherland the Quail has nested in the east of the county several times ; and Mr. T. Mackenzie,
of Dornoch Castle, writes to me that he himself 'found the nest, but, unfortunately, after the
young had been hatched. The fragments of egg-shells enabled me to identify them as Quail's

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eggs ; and the young birds were seen in September following.' There are specimens also in the
Dunrobin Museum." In Ireland the Quail is said to be much more numerous than in England ;
and Thompson states that it is very generally distributed over the cultivated districts in summer,
and that numbers also remain during the winter.

It is not found in Greenland or Iceland; but Captain Feilden says that it occurs not
unfrequently in Fseroe as a summer visitor. Herr Muller received nine eggs from a nest taken
near Qualvig on the 1st October, 1865; and another nest was procured in Sandoe, August 1866,
containing six eggs. In Norway it breeds in tolerable numbers in the lowlands of Christiania
and Hamar Stifts up to the Trondhjemsfjord, where it is frequently seen in the Surendale, and
one was shot at Tromso. On the west coast it is rare, but was seen in Sondfjord in the summer
of 1858 by Dr. Bidenkap. It breeds in the more elevated subalpine portions of the Foldale, in
the Dovre. It arrives late in May in Southern Norway, and leaves again late in September.
Professor Sundevall remarks that, as a rule, it can only be considered as a rare species in Sweden,
where it is somewhat sparingly distributed from Skane up to Sodermanland, Upland, and Nerike ;
but occasionally it breeds there in tolerable numbers. Previous to 1820-30, he remarks, it was
scarcely known in Sweden, but has since then gradually increased. In Finland it is said to be
rare ; but occurs sparingly here and there, Dr. Palmen says, in the southern and central portions
of the country. It has been met with near Gamla Karleby ; and Mr. Tengstrom heard and saw
it in June 1839 at Latvajiirvi lake, close to the frontier of Finland, in the Archangel Govern-
ment, in 65° N. lat. It is not uncommon in many parts of Russia. Meves met with it in the
Archangel Government ; and Messrs. Alston and Harvie-Brown saw two in the flesh at Sujma,
near Archangel. Sabanaeff says that it was met with by Kessler in the southern portion of the
Olonetz Government. In the Ural he met with it only in the cultivated portions of the Perm
Government ; but it spreads northwards as cultivation progresses. Mr. Taczanowski says that the
Quail is common in Poland in summer, arriving about the 10th May and leaving usually late in
October, though a few stragglers may be seen as late as the 15th November.

Throughout the whole of North Germany the present species is tolerably common, and
generally distributed during the summer ; and Mr. Collin states that it is found in Denmark
from May to September. Mr. Fischer says that, as a rule, it is only sparingly met with in
Vendsyssel, but in 1863, curiously enough, it was exceedingly numerous, and in the following
year it was also more numerous than usual. From then to 1868 it was, as usual, not common;
but in that year again it was more plentiful. Schlegel says that it is found in Holland during
the breeding-season, but in most parts it is rather rare than otherwise. It arrives in May, and
leaves in September. In Belgium and France it is common from about the middle of April to
the end of September, and is especially numerous during passage on the Mediterranean coasts.
M. Adrien Lacroix states that it breeds throughout the Pyrenees; and Professor Barboza du
Bocage says it is common in Portugal. Dr. E. Rey, however, states that he only heard its call
once in Estremadura, near Barreiro, on the 24th of March. It is certainly common in Spain.
Mr. Howard Saunders writes (Ibis, 1871, p. 224) that " some remain throughout the winter in
the south of Spain ; but the greater number arrive in April and remain to breed all over the
country. Torremolinos, near Malaga, is a noted Quail-ground." According to Colonel Irby
(Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 138) " the chief vernal migration of the common Quail is during the months of

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March and April, whilst the autumnal passage is almost entirely executed during the latter half
of September, at that time their numbers being sometimes incredible. The Andalucian cazadores
profess to recognize two kinds of Quail— those which are migratory and called ' criollas,' and
those which are resident and so named ' castellanas.' There is certainly much difference in the
colour of the plumage and of the legs, the criollas being lighter-coloured and slightly smaller
birds than the castellanas, which are very dark ; otherwise, in habits, note, and eggs, there is no
difference, although at a glance the resident and migratory races can be easily distinguished.

"There are a great number of these resident Quails, which, throughout the winter, seem to
collect together and haunt certain favourite spots, these places never being without Quail. You
may kill three or four, and hunt about unable to find more ; but go to the same place in a few
days' time, and you will find that some fresh ones have taken possession of the ground."

Von Homeyer states (J. f. O. 1862, p. 420) that it is a migrant in the Balearic Isles, and
he did not hear its call before the 26th of April. On the two larger islands it is very abundant ;
and he remarks on the difference of coloration in specimens examined by him from there. In
Savoy the Quail is abundant from April to October, and also in Italy, where a few winter in the
southern provinces. In Sardinia, Mr. A. B. Brooke writes (Ibis, 1873, p. 336), large numbers
arrive in the spring, and a few remain throughout the year ; and in Sicily immense flights pass
near Palermo. In Malta, Mr. C. A. Wright states (Ibis, 1864, p. 139), "In spring and autumn,
especially the latter, large numbers of these birds alight on the island, and constitute the principal
game of the sportsmen of Malta. Although usually arriving with the prevalent winds of the
season, as before mentioned in reference to birds in general, they also find their way here during
perfect calms, provided that it is their season of migration. In spring they come during the
night, and chiefly to the west and north-west coast, Gozo being at this season the most favoured
locality. In the autumn, on the contrary, they arrive for the most part during the hours of
daylight, and the east and south-east coasts are the parts where they are most abundant ; at both
seasons, however, they are found scattered throughout both islands. Quails come here in the
greatest numbers in September, though in April very large flights occasionally occur. A good
shot may bag in a day, in the height of the season, fifty to sixty brace by hard work, notwith-
standing the numerous sportsmen out ; but such sport is the exception, days repeatedly occurring
on which hardly a bird can be found. Ten or fifteen brace are ordinarily a very good bag.
Various methods, in addition to shooting, are adopted for catching these birds. A few breed
here in March. Some of these are also caught by imitating the call-note of the female, and so
drawing the males, which are the first to arrive, into nets spread on the standing corn. A few
solitary birds are to be found throughout the winter."

Lord Lilford, in his article on the ornithology of the Ionian Islands (Ibis, 1860, p. 238),
says that " a few Quails remain the whole year in Corfu and Epirus ; but great numbers arrive
every year in April, and remain for a few days. On the little island of Fano, especially, they
sometimes at that season alight in incredible numbers, often only remaining a single night. I
have occasionally met with good sport at Quails in the maize-fields of Epirus in September ;
these were chiefly young birds that had been bred in the country. A few are always to be found
in winter on the grassy hills of the mainland opposite to Corfu, particularly on those near the
little harbour of Pagania." In Greece the Quail is very numerous during the seasons of passage ;

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and a few remain to breed there, some also remaining throughout the winter. The spring
passage commences in March ; but the main body pass about the middle of April. In the
autumn they repass late in August or early in September.

In Southern Germany the Quail is also common during the summer season. The late
Mr. E. Seidensacher informed me that numbers breed in Styria, and that sometimes vast swarms
were seen near Cilli in the autumn ; and, according to Dr. A. Fritsch, it is very common in
Bohemia in some seasons, arriving in May and leaving in September. The official game-lists
show that about ten thousand are killed there annually. It is found in the countries bordering
the Danube ; and Messrs. Elwes and Buckley state (Ibis, 1870, p. 328) that it arrives in Turkey
in April in immense flocks, and disperses all over the country to breed. Numbers are killed on
the shores of the Bosphorus during the two seasons of passage.

In Southern Russia it is extremely abundant from April to October, especially in Abasia
and Mingrelia, and is also numerous in Asia Minor, and, according to Dr. Kriiper, winters near
Smyrna. Dr. Tristram says (Ibis, 1868, p. 215) that in Palestine a few pairs were "found here
and there throughout the winter ; but in March they returned from the south by myriads in a
single night, and remained in all the open plains, marshes, and corn-fields."

It is found numerous in North-east Africa. Captain Shelley says (B. of Egypt, p. 223)
that " a few Quail remain in Egypt throughout the year. The migratory birds arrive there in
abundance towards the beginning of March and again in November, the greater number -only
passing through the country on their way to and from Europe ; but still many remain to breed.
When these travellers have arrived in the country the fact soon becomes known from their
peculiar call, which may be constantly heard from among the crops, especially in the early
morning and towards sunset. These are the best times for shooting Quail ; for during the heat
of the day they retire to the thicker crops, and are very unwilling to rise." Von Heuglin, who
says that it is found less numerous in Egypt on the spring passage, but in vast numbers in
August, September, and October, adds that it does not appear to winter in Abyssinia, Kordofan,
or Sennaar, but probably passes south of the equator. A few remain to breed in Central and
Lower Egypt, nesting in April. In North-west Africa the Quail is common, and would be more
so in Algeria, Mr. Gurney, jun., says, were they not so much sought after. The shooting-season
is opened from the 20th of March to the 15th of April, principally for their benefit ; and large
numbers are annually killed. He remarks that, though on passage, they were generally paired.
Dr. Taczanowski also writes (J. f. O. 1870, p. 51) that in the Province of Constantine " the Quail
is sometimes found throughout the winter on the coast, in the Tell, and in the tamarind-thickets.
They arrive in February in great numbers from the interior of Africa, and visit the fields round
the oases, where they can also be seen about the end of March in large flocks. If they were
everywhere so much sought after as in Biskra, they would have long ago entirely disappeared in
Europe. During the time of their migration in autumn they live on the sea-coast and avoid
the date-region." Colonel Irby writes (I. c), " Favier states that the Quail is very abundant on
passage on the Moorish side of the Straits of Gibraltar, many remaining to breed, the majority
crossing over to Europe during March and April, returning in October and November."

It occurs down the African coast to the Cape of Good Hope, as also in the Azores, Madeira,
and the Canaries. Mr. Godman writes (Ibis, 1866, p. 99), in the Azores, it is " plentiful in the

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cultivated lands on all the islands, and even in the gardens. It is not migratory here, and
is said to have two, and sometimes even three, nests in the year. It is certainly exceedingly
numerous, and affords excellent sport ; on one occasion a Portuguese gentleman and I killed 157
in a few hours." Dr. C. Bolle, writing on the ornithology of the Canaries, states (J. f. O. 1855,
p. 173) that it is " very plentiful on all the islands, where, it is said, it breeds twice, and even
three times in the year, and as late as August. It is also stated that some leave the country in
the wintei 1 , but that the majority do not migrate, and feed during the cold weather on the
orange-coloured berries of the Daphne gnidium. At Fuerteventura I have shot many of them on
stubble-fields after the harvest, which takes place there in April. The best shooting-season is
in September and October, at which time the Quails are extremely fat. A good sportsman can
kill as many as fifty in one day at the Rodeos." He further adds (J. f. O. 1857, p. 334) that he
heard the first in Canaria in 1856, in May, on the Cumbre of Tejada, and subsequently near
Tenteniguada, and all along the elevated mountain-ridges. There are specimens in the British
Museum from the Cape-Verd Islands ; and Professor Barboza du Bocage records it from Angola
and the Island of St. Thomas. Andersson (B. of Damara Land, p. 249) states that it is not
uncommon in Middle and Southern Damara Land; and he adds that during the year 1865
countless numbers of Quails arrived in the neighbourhood of Capetown ; whilst much of the
rest of the colony, which had suffered severely from drought, was nearly denuded of these birds.
According to Mr. E. L. Layard it usually arrives in the Cape colony about the end of August,
and sometimes as early as the 15th of that month, in great numbers. Mr. Ayres states (Ibis,
1874, p. 103) that it is pretty generally distributed in the Transvaal, and is tolerably plentiful
amongst the grass along the banks of the river about five miles from Potchefstroom ; and
Mr. Barrett writes (Ibis, 1876, p. 208), in his paper on the ornithology of the Lydenburg district,
that he has "shot this Quail in the Chalumna district, British Kaffraria, where it arrived in
great numbers about the end of August. In the Transvaal it is widely distributed. I have shot
it near Pretoria, Rustenberg, Nazareth, and many other places. I received my last from Marico
district." I have examined specimens from Mauritius; and Professor Newton writes (Ibis, 1863,
p. 454) that he received, through Mr. Caldwell, a skin from Antananarivo, in Madagascar, where
it is said to be not uncommon.

To the eastward the present species is found as far as Japan. It breeds in Turkestan ; and
according to Mr. Blanford (E. Persia, ii. p. 278) it is " common in Persia in all cultivated fields
during the time the crops are green : it leaves the Persian highlands in winter, resorting to India."
He says, " I heard Quail calling in the green crops at Bampur at the beginning of April, at less
than 2000 feet above the sea, at about 5000 to 6000 feet in May, and at Kohrud, between
Isfahan and Tehran, 7000 feet above the sea, in the middle of July, and I have no doubt but
that they breed at different times according to the elevation." Mr. A. O. Hume states (Stray
Feathers, i. p. 227) that he met with it constantly in Sindh, though never far from cultivation,
usually in scattered pairs ; but he was told that in certain seasons they are very plentiful.
According to Dr. Jerdon (B. of India, ii. p. 587) it is found throughout India in considerable
numbers during the cold weather, most migrating during the rains, and breeding elsewhere, but a
few pairs remaining and breeding in various parts of the country, especially towards the west and
north-west. Dr. Henderson writes (Lahore to Yarkand, p. 284) that " one specimen of the common

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Quail was caught on the 24th September, at the Karatag lake (13,500 feet), and kept alive for
several days. It was the only Quail actually observed during the journey; but though not
flushed or bagged, they were heard calling in all the fields in Yarkand." It is found in South-
eastern Siberia. Dr. Radde met with it throughout the whole of those portions of that country
visited by him ; while, according to Dr. Dybowski, it is scarce in Dauria, and only met with
during the seasons of passage, but the natives informed him that it occasionally breeds there,
and is more frequently met with in the valleys of the Irkut. In Mongolia it is met with on
passage, but is said to be rather scarce, though in China it is, Mr. Swinhoe writes (Ibis, 1861,
p. 341), " very common, even as late as October, in which month immense flocks of them dropped
in the neighbourhood of the Taku forts, evidently birds from more northerly parts bound south."
He says that in the island of Formosa it is resident, but more numerous in the winter. In Japan,
as in China, it appears to be common and generally distributed.

In general habits the Quail differs considerably from the Partridge, and appears more
especially to be far less gregarious than that bird ; for, instead of being found in coveys, it is
generally flushed singly, though frequently many are found in the same patch of herbage.
Only when the young birds are under the charge of the mother do they keep together, the male
bird being, however, usually absent ; and very soon after they are able to shift for themselves
they scatter, and do not afterwards reunite. During passage, however, they collect in vast flocks,
and in some parts of Europe, especially on the shores of the Mediterranean, they arrive in such
quantities as to make the chase very remunerative. Numbers are also netted ; and as they are
easily kept alive, they are sent long distances to market fatted for sale. Large numbers are
imported to London from the Continent in flat large cases covered with cloth on the top, pro-
vided with a feeding-trough in front ; and the birds appear to travel well, and even thrive, in
these uncomfortable-looking cages. It is stated that when migrating the Quail flies at a great
altitude ; and in places where they settle down they are said to drop almost perpendicularly from
the air, and to be in a very tired and exhausted state. They migrate during the night, especially
when it is moonlight, and also early in the morning or late in the evening, resting during the
day-time ; and as they travel northward some are left here and there on the way to take up their
breeding-quarters. The flight of the Quail is swift, whirring, and direct, like that of the Part-
ridge ; but it rarely flies very far, but drops again into some convenient cover, and is averse to take
wing unless it cannot avoid doing so. It runs easily and quickly, being strong on its legs, and,
with the help of its wings, can jump to a great height in running along through tangled grass.
When flushed it seems to rise unwillingly, and not until almost trodden on, and flies quite low,
not above about five feet from the ground. Speaking of the habits of the Quail in Egypt,
Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., says (Eamb. of a Natur. p. 183) : — " Although they are gregarious in
the strictest sense of the word, they never fly in a flock, but each, regardless of its neighbour,
goes its own course, straight and quick, about a yard from the ground. They almost invariably
get up at your feet, and seldom fly more than 400 yards. I never saw any on passage by day ;
and it is said that, unlike the Storks, they only migrate by night. As Captain Shelley remarks,
they are very unwilling to rise during the heat of the day. Morning and evening are the best
times to shoot them, and ripe barley, or strips of lentils just ready to cut, the best places in
which to look for them. It is wiser not to go into barley-fields, &c, where the business of

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harvest has commenced, for the following reason : the national laziness shows itself in the Arab
husbandman, who prefers reaping as he sits ; Quails fly low ; and his head, hardly visible above
the crop, is in danger of receiving the sportsman's charge. I never attempted to make any great
bag ; but I have frequently shot ten brace. The biggest bag I heard of was eighty brace to one
gun, or rather to one sportsman with two guns, at Cairo. The neighbourhood of Cairo is very
good ; indeed it would be hard to particularize any place which is not good at the right time ;
but on the whole we nowhere got better shooting than in the plains of Thebes, right up to the
very colossi. Without a dog you must expect to lose a third, unless your native is very expert
in marking them. By the middle of April the migration was all past. On the 12th we killed
thirteen brace: that was the last day we made a bag. After that they became just as scarce as
they had been in the Delta in January. That some stay the summer to breed is certain ; and it
would appear that a few nest in the winter or early spring ; for on the 22nd of March I flushed
an early ' squeaker ' able to fly, which must have been hatched some weeks. I never saw any
others. I conclude the natives occasionally catch them for their own consumption, as I was now
and then brought a snared one. In Hasselquist's time they netted them in Lower Egypt."

The food of the Quail is very similar to that of the Partridge ; but it feeds more on small
seeds and on insects than that bird. It eats the seeds of numbers of weeds of various sorts and
of different sorts of grasses, and various insects, such as flies, grasshoppers, cicadas, ants, and
so-called ants' eggs, small coleoptera, and leaf-insects. It feeds during the night and early in
the morning and late in the evening, seldom, if ever, during the day, when it remains at rest in
some convenient cover. Like many of its allies it is fond of dusting itself and scratching in the
dry soil, frequently reclining on its side to sun itself.

The call- or pairing-note of the male bird is well known wherever this bird is found in the
breeding-season. It consists of a short prelude, harsh and deep, resembling the syllables rowow,
after which comes the loud shrill picwirwic or pickernic, which is so well known to the peasant,
who hails it as a forerunner of the harvest. Naumann tells us that the German peasant says
the Quail utters the words " Biicke dich" (stoop), or " Buck' den Ruck " (bend your back). The
female never utters the second shrill note, but only sometimes, when under intense sexual
excitement, calls rowow. During the heat of the day the call of the Quail is scarcely ever
heard, but usually in the evening, during fine still weather, and throughout the night to late in
the morning, and most often in the months of May and June. Besides the above pairing-call
both sexes have a note with which they call each other, resembling the syllables beebewe; and
when suddenly flushed and alarmed they utter a note tril-reck-reck-reck, which, however, is not
very loud.

The Quail is both monogamous and polygamous ; for in some parts they are found paired,
the male contenting himself with one mate, whereas in others he will have more than one.
Few birds are so ardent and intensely amorous ; and this ardent nature of the Quail has given
rise to various superstitions or curious stories amongst the ancients. When a male in the height
of amorous passion meets a female he will tread her time after time, not unfrequently, it is said,
as often as nine or ten times in succession ; and if she proves coy to these advances, will attack
and ill use her, sometimes even killing her. Moreover, the male Quail is extremely pugnacious,
and will attack any other male who comes within the district or piece of ground of which he has

XOeJ

11

taken possession, with the greatest fury. Formerly Quails used to be kept for fighting : this is
still done amongst some of the eastern nations ; and they are said to fight until one succumbs
and is killed by his adversary.

The Quail breeds very late, usually late in June or early in July, the nest being a mere
depression scratched in the soil, usually in a wheat- or grain-field, or else in the grass, and lined
with a few grass bents or stems of plants, in which from eight to a dozen or fourteen eggs are
deposited. The female incubates very closely, not leaving her eggs until very closely approached,
and then running away, not flying off. Incubation lasts from eighteen to twenty days ; and the
young birds are able to run almost directly after they are hatched. They are very carefully
tended by the mother, and fed with insects and insect-larvae, and grow very quickly, being able
to flutter along when only a fortnight old, and in six weeks time are full-grown and able to fly,
and then scatter and take care of themselves. It appears that only one brood is raised in the
season ; but should the first eggs be destroyed she will lay another lot, though less in number
than the first.

The eggs of the Quail are somewhat large for the size of the bird, measuring, on an average,
about l^o by f^ inch ; they vary somewhat in shape, and are richly coloured with deep olivaceous
brown or blackish brown on a brownish yellow ground, some being marked all over with small
spots, and others richly and largely blotched, the variation in the markings being very great.

There appears to be little doubt that the present species is the bird that supplied the
famishing Israelites with food in the wilderness. It has, however, been asserted by various
authors that it was a flying fish, a locust, and a Sand-Grouse. But every thing tends to prove that
it must have been a Quail ; for it was most undoubtedly a bird, and the present species is almost
the only one that migrates in such great numbers as to answer to the description in Holy Writ.
In such quantities does it migrate, that, according to Yarrell, as many as 160,000 are recorded
to have been netted in one season on Goat Island, a small island at the entrance of the Bay of
Naples ; and Temminck states that near Nettuno, in the kingdom of Naples, a hundred thousand
have been taken in a day.

The specimens figured are those above described, and are in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : — -

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, $ . Leadenhall Market, September (H. E. D.) . b, c, pulli. France (Fairmaire). d, 6 , e, $ . Casa Vieja,
Andalucia, May 10th, 1874 (Col. Irby). f, d juv., g, ?. Stilo, Albania, November 2nd, 1871 (Hanbury
Barclay), h, i, k. Port Elizabeth, S. Africa (Cutler). I, d. Yarkand, January 1874 (Capt. Biddulph).
m. Yeddo, Japan (C. M'Veari).

E Mus. Lord Tweeddale.

a, d , b, 2 • Croydon, Surrey, May 19th, 1869 (Davy) . c, d . Usern, Switzerland (Nager) . d, d , e, $ „
Valencia, Spain, October (H. Saunders), f, g, 6 ■ N.E. India, h, i, d, k, $. N.W. India. I, m, d,
n $. Candeish, India, o. Umballah, November 1866 (Beavan). p, d. East Bardwan, India, February
1864 (Beavan). q,r,d. Chefoo, China, May 1873 (R. Sivinhoe). s, d . Fengwanshan, China, April
1875. t, 6 ■ S. Yezo, Japan, August (Whitely).

154

12

E Mus. Brit. Reg.

a, $ . Gibraltar {Col. Irby). b. Kerjath Jearim, Palestine [Canon Tristram), c, <$ , d, $ ■ Cape-Verd Islands.
e, d ■ S. Africa. /, 6- Mauritius, g, h, i,j, k. Nepal [Hodgson). I, $. Japan.

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, <$. Usern [F. N. Donazien). b, <$,c, $. Valencia, November 8th. d, j . Valencia, September 17th.
e, 6 , dark var. Valencia, October 25th. /, ? , dark var. Valencia, October 2nd [R. Martin) .

E Mus. Salvin et Godman.

a, 2 . Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire, March 1857. b, c, d, e, 6 ,f, g, h, $ . St. Michael's, Azores, March 1865.
i, d. St. Michael's, May 1865 [F. D. Godman).

155

Family TETBAONHm

Genus LAGOPUS.

Lagopus, Brisson, Orn. i. pp. 181, 216 (1760).
Tetrao apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 275 (1766).
Attagen apud Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 170 (1829).
Oreias apud Kaup, torn. cit. p. 177 (1829).

The Ptarmigan inhabit the northern portions and the elevated mountain-ranges in the central
parts of the Palsearctic and Nearctic Regions, five out of the six species known being inhabitants
of the Western Pakearctic Eegion.

These birds frequent rocky mountainous localities, swampy mosses, and open heaths and
country covered with cranberry- and blueberry-bushes and stunted brushwood. They are always
found away from the forests, in the open country, and never perch on trees like the Grouse.
They walk with ease, and when disturbed will squat and hide, or else take wing at once. Their
flight is direct, strong, and well sustained ; and when they rise they do so rather noisily. They
feed on seeds, berries, and shoots of plants of various kinds. In the early autumn they are
found in family parties or coveys ; but later in the season they collect in large packs and ramble
about the country in search of food. They are monogamous, and breed tolerably early in the
season, their nest being a depression in the ground, very scantily lined ; and their eggs, which are
numerous, are pale olivaceous, richly blotched and spotted with dark brown. The young birds
are able to run and hide almost directly they emerge from the shell.

Lagopus mutus, the type of the genus, has the bill short, stout, slightly curved, the upper
mandible decurved, the edges sharp and overlapping, the tip thin-edged and rounded ; nostrils
oblong, basal, lateral, concealed by short feathers ; wings short, broad, much rounded, the first
quill shorter than the sixth, the third longest ; tail moderately short, slightly rounded ; legs
rather short ; tarsus and toes feathered to the claws ; claws rather long, arched, depressed, the
edges thin, the tips obtuse ; plumage full, close, compact. All the species but one become white
in the winter.

168

156

477

% J

LAGOPUS MUTUS.

A ntiiTT TTi phnna-ge

248

LAGOPUS RUPESTRIS.

478

i

i .,

^■'.'~,

•t

X' w

COMMON PTARMIGAN.

LAuQPus mutus

157

LAGOPUS MUTUS.

(COMMON PTARMIGAN.)

XTetrao mutus, Montin, Physiogr. Sallsk. Hancll. Lund, i. p. 155 (1776-86).
Lagopus mutus, Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 27 (1816).
Tetrao alpinus, Nils. Orn. Suec. i. p. 311 (1817).
Lagopus vulgaris, Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xvii. p. 199 (1817, partim). •
Tetrao montanus, C. L. Brehm, Lehrb. eur. Vog. i. p. 448 (1823).
Attagen, Kaup (Teh montanus, Br.), Natiirl. Syst. pp. 170-177 (1829).
Lagopus montanus, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 516 (1831).
Lagopus alpinus, Nilsson, Skand. Faun. ii. p. 98 (1835).
Tetrao rupestris, Jenyns, Man. Brit. Vert. Anim. p. 171 (1835, nee Gm.).
L/agopus cinereus, Macgillivray, Hist. Brit. B. i. p. 187 (1837).
"Lagopus mutus, Leach," Bp. Comp. List, p. 44. no. 298 (1838).
"Liagopits rupestris, Leach," Bp. torn. cit. p. 44. no. 299 (1838, nee Gm.).
Lagopus alpinus minor, L. Brehm, J. f. Orn. 1860, p. 393.

Lagopede muet, Gelinotte blanche, French ; Lagopo bianco, Italian ; Alpen-Schneehuhn, Felsen-
Schneehuhn, German ; Fjeldrype, Norwegian ; Fjallripa, Swedish ; Kuruna, Finnish.

Figure notabiles.

DAubenton, PL Enl. 494; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 7; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 110, 111 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 160. figs. 1, 2, taf. 161. figs. 1, 2 ; Sundevall,
Sv. Fogl. pi. 35. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4; Gould, B. of Eur. pis. 253, 254; Eoux, Om. Prov.
pi. 255 ; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. tav. 82 ; Elliot, Monogr. Tetr. pis. 21, 22 ; Gould, B. of G.
Brit. iv. pis. 8, 9, 10.

6 ad. ptil. ast. capite, collo et pectore nigris in collo vix albido immixto : mento albido : supra oculos macula
nuda coccinea : dorso superiore nigro, et dorso imo, tectricibus alarum intimis nonnullis, scapularibus,
uropygio et supracaudalibus nigricantibus ferrugineo vermiculatis et vix albido apicatis : remigibus
albis, primariis rbachibus versus apicem nigro-fuscis : cauda. nigricante, rectricibus centralibus vix
albido apicatis : pectore imo, abdomine et subcaudalibus albis, hypochondriis superioribus nigrican-
tibus : rostro nigricanti-corneo : rride brunnea.

2 ad. ptil. cest. mari dissimilis : capite, collo, pectore, hypochondriis et corpore supra nigricantibus ferru-
gescente ochraceo transfasciatis et vermiculatis, plumis singulis albido apicatis : alis et cauda ut in
mare : pectore imo et abdomine albis : subcaudalibus dorso concoloribus sed plumis albis immixtis.

Ptil. autumn, capite, collo, pectore superiore, hypochondriis et corpore supra grisescenti-schistaceis nigricante
transversim vermiculatis, capite et collo ochrascente ferrugineo tinctis : cauda nigricante, albido
apicata : alis, abdomine et subcaudalibus albis, remigibus primariis rhachibus versus apicem nigro-
fuscis.

158

6 ptil. Mem. albus, cauda nigricante, albido apicata, loris nigris, remigibus primariis rhachibus versus apicem
nigricantibus.

2 ptil. hiem. mari similis, sed loris albis.

Adult Male in breeding -plumage (Maristuen, Norway, 7th June). Head, neck, breast, upper part of tbe
back, and upper part of the flanks black, slightly intermixed with white on the neck ; chin nearly pure
white ; over the eye a tolerably conspicuous vermilion comb ; lower part of the back, some of the inner
wing-coverts, scapulars, rump, and npper tail-coverts black, finely vermiculated with brown, and tipped
here and there very narrowly with white; tail blackish, the central feathers narrowly tipped with
white; wings, lower part of the breast, abdomen, and under tail-coverts white, primaries with the
shafts dark brown towards the tip ; bill dark blackish horn ; iris brown. Total length about 15| inches,
culmen 1*05, from the nostril to the tip of the bill 0'4, wing 7 - 7, tail 4'8, tarsus 1*35.

Adult Female in breeding-plumage (Gaick, Inverness-shire, June) . Head, neck, breast, flanks, back, rump,
and upper tail-coverts blackish, closely marked, barred, and vermiculated with rusty yellow, and here
and there tipped with white; wings and tail as in the male; lower part of the breast and abdomen
white; under tail-coverts partly white, partly coloured like the back.

Male in autumn (Inverness-shire). Head, neck, upper part of the breast, flanks, back, scapulars, and upper
parts generally slate-grey or ashy grey, narrowly vermiculated with black ; head and neck tinged with
reddish brown ; tail blackish, tipped with white ; wings, abdomen, and under tail-coverts white.

Male in winter. Entire plumage pure white, except the lores, which are black, and the tail, which is black,
slightly tipped with white; primary quills with the shafts blackish brown towards the tip.

Female in winter. Resembles the male, but lacks the black lores.

Whilst the Red Grouse and the Willow-Grouse frequent the subalpine regions, the present
species is found only in the mountains of Northern Europe and Asia, and also on the more
elevated mountain-ranges of Southern Europe, but does not occur in the Nearctic Region.

In Great Britain it is now only known to inhabit the more elevated portions of Scotland,
not being met with in Ireland or England, though formerly it used to occur in Cumberland.
Mr. A. G. More (Ibis, 1865, p. 427) says that "Heysham describes the Ptarmigan as having
become, in his time, very scarce in Cumberland ; and he cites ' the lofty mountains about
Keswick' as the only locality known to him. There is a tradition of its former existence in
Wales ; but I have not been able to discover the original authority for this statement." For the
following information respecting the range of the present species in Scotland I am indebted to
my friend Mr. J. A. Harvie Brown, who writes to me that " the Ptarmigan does not extend
northwards into Orkney or Shetland. Sutherlandshire and Ross-shire are the strongholds of the
species in the north of Scotland, especially the stony mountains of Assynt, on the ridge of Ben
Chaorin (commonly called Harran), and on the heights and corries of Glashven, Ben Mhor, and
Braebag ; but it not found so numerously on those curiously shaped and isolated peaks lying
nearer the sea, viz. Quinaig, Canishpe, Soulbhein (the ' Sugar-loaf '), Coul Mhor, and Coul Beg.
In Ross-shire the Ptarmigan is abundant on Ben Wyvis in the east, and on the range of Ben
Deraig in the west, but again becomes scarcer towards the coast. Southward through Ross-shire

159

and Inverness-shire, in all suitable localities, it is met with abundantly, preferring, however, as ft
rule, the larger masses of mountain land to the isolated peaks. Possibly a reason for this pre-
ference may be found in the fact that there are more sheltered corries and greater variety of
feeding-ground in the former. In Aberdeenshire, on Lochnagar and Ben Muicdhui, they are
found in abundance, but on the western mountains of the same range are comparatively scarce,
in this case, however, owing to the nature of the mountain-summits — which are not so suited to
their habits, being less stony, more deeply covered with moss, and not bearing mountain-berries
in such quantities. In Skye they are found among the Cuchullin Hills, but not in great
numbers, and in Harris and Lewis are comparatively scarce. Southward through Perthshire
they are, generally speaking, scarcer, but in certain localities a fair number may be met with.

(i I am indebted to Mr. James Lumsden, Arden, for the following note on the Ptarmigan
in the neighbourhood of Loch Lomond. ' In this district,' he writes, ' the Ptarmigan has greatly
decreased in numbers. There are still, however, a few birds to be found on Ben Lomond ; and
for several years one pair at least has nested there every season. On the Cobbler they are rather
more plentiful, but are by no means common even on the rugged top. Occasional birds are met
with on the hills above Luss ; but they are only stragglers, the only breeeding-grounds I have
ever heard of in the district being the two mountains above mentioned.'

" In Arran, as I am informed by the Duke of Hamilton's head gamekeepers in the north
and south of the island, the Ptarmigan became nearly, if not quite, extinct about the year 1856.
At all events none were observed in Arran after that date until fresh blood was introduced in
1867. This reintroduction was effected by bringing a few young birds from the north of Scotland.
Since then the species has not steadily increased in numbers, nor is it considered likely that they
will ever become very numerous, the mountain-ranges being of no great extent, and the whole
area occupied by them being of inconsiderable size. Two years ago, however, some tourists saw
no less than sixteen in one day, probably one or two coveys.

" As far as my experience goes, Ptarmigan, wherever they occur, are scarcer on the extreme
summits of the mountains than at a lower elevation ; and those shot upon the level deserts of
stones in the higher and more exposed situations are found to be smaller birds. I know this to
be the case in certain districts, not only from hearsay (i. e. information received from shepherds,
gamekeepers, and others who are constantly amidst their haunts), but likewise from my own
repeated observations, and from a comparison of specimens. So remarkable is this difference in
size sometimes, that when on the wing these higher-ranging birds appear as pigmies compared
with those found lower down. Moreover the smaller birds assume the winter dress much sooner
and retain it longer.

" Writing to me upon the subject of our Scotch Ptarmigan, Professor Newton informed me
that the above facts fully bear out similar observations made by him on the Ptarmigan in Norway.
la 1834 Mr. Selby was under the impression that Lagopus rupestris (Gm.) had been obtained
from the Ben-More range, in Sutherland. Professor Newton writes me that there can be little
doubt that the mistake arose from the fact that the orange-yellow summer dress of the female
Lagopus mutus was not at that time generally known to naturalists, but was supposed by them
to be peculiar to the North-American species. Therefore when Mr. Selby's specimen was
obtained, in full summer-plumage (I have had the pleasure of examining the bird, which is

3d

160

4

now in Sir W. Jardine's collection), and when the orange-yellow plumage was remarked, the
bird being ' smaller than the usual average size of the common Ptarmigan' (Selby) and there-
fore doubtless one of the said higher-ranging birds, it was erroneously referred to Lagopus
rupestris. In my cabinet is one of these small birds, shot upon precisely the same ground where
Mr. Selby's specimen was obtained ; but, unlike his, it is in almost pure winter dress ; laid beside
another killed lower down on the same day (but which last is in almost perfect autumn or grey
plumage), it looks quite a pigmy.

" In Norway, as soon as the snow melts and leaves bare the little rising grounds or knolls on
the high fjelds above the birch-belts, the Ptarmigan, or 'Fjeld-rype,' begins to lay its handsome
eggs in a little hollow scraped in the reindeer-moss, or partially concealed and sheltered by a low
bush of the dwarf birch (Betula nana) ; in Scotland the end of May and beginning of June is the
usual time chosen by them for breeding. In Scotland the nest is almost invariably partially
sheltered from the prevailing wind by being placed close under the lee of a rock or lichen-covered
stone. The number of eggs is usually from six to nine or ten ; but sometimes more are laid.

"To ensure success in shooting Ptarmigan in the season, a certain amount of knowledge of
their habits, and also of the ground they frequent, is necessary. Note should be taken of the
direction of the wind, as they are almost if not quite as much influenced in the choice of their
ground for the day as deer are by the changes in wind and weather. Bags of ten, fifteen, and
even twenty brace may be made in the season in good localities by one who knows the ground
and who knows also how to choose his day or days."

It occurs throughout Scandinavia in the more elevated districts; Mr. P. Collett says that
" it breeds commonly on the fells, above the tree-growth, in all districts up to the Russian
frontier, and is numerous on the Dovre- and Langfjeld down to Norefjeld, in Krydsherred and
Hekfjeld, in 58J° N. lat. In the winter it visits the western districts in small numbers, but
seldom, if ever, occurs in the southern lowlands." In Finland, according to Dr. Palmen (Finl.
Fogl. ii. p. 44), "it inhabits only the northern districts, and is common on the fells bordering
the Arctic Ocean, and at Enontekis, but rare at Muonioniska, Olostunturi, and Pallastunturi ;
Middendorff says that it is rarer on the eastern side of the Lapland peninsula, but it is found in
very small numbers at Triostrow. In the wooded south-western portion it occur* only on the
fell-tops, as, for instance, near the Imandra lake ; but we cannot say whether it occurs on the
Kuusamo Fell or not. Mr. E. Grape says that occasionally, during severe cold, flocks have come
down even to Haaparanta, but this is now seldom the case." Mr. Sabanaefi' informs me that he
found it common in the Pavdinsk Ural, in Russia, but it is rare in the Kaslinsk and Ufalinsk
Ural; Hoffmann met with it between 61° and 66° N. lat.

It appears only to occur elsewhere in Europe in the Alps and Pyrenees, not being, so far
as I can ascertain, met with in any other portion of Europe. Lord Lilford tells me, " a
few Ptarmigan are to be met with on the high Pyrenees of Aragon and Catalonia, and I am
informed on good authority that this species is not uncommon on the high ranges of Asturias
and Leon. We met with this bird near the Col de Tenda, in the Maritime Alps, and again on
the Italian side of the Alps, in the neighbourhood of Cresole and Aosta, where it appeared
moderately common." Baron J. W. von Miiller (J. f. O. 1859, p. 75) says that he "found it in
the Alps at Kasten, Kamor, Ebenalp, Schafler, Mossmer, &c, and that it appears to inhabit all

161

portions of the Alps." According to Naumann (Vog. Deutschl. vi. p. 411), it is extremely
numerous in Glarus, Graubiinden, Appenzell, Tessin, and Unterwalden, as also on the St.
Gothard and the Grimsel, less common in the Alpine regions of the Tyrol, Karnthen, Styria,
and Salzburg, and but rare in the high mountains of Austria and Wurtemberg, where it is
sometimes found as far as Nagold, on the edge of the Black Forest.

To the eastward the present species is found throughout Northern Siberia. Von Middendorff
(Sib. Reise, p. 191) says that it was the only species of Grouse which is found as far north as
the mainland extends in the Taimyr district, and in the winter it ranges southward at least as
far as Turuchansk, in 66° N. lat. He did not personally meet with it in South-eastern Siberia ;
but he believes that it occurs in the Stanowoi Mountains. Dr. Radde (Reis. im Slid, von Ost-
Sib. p. 295) says that he met with the present species, at an altitude of from 8800 to 9700 feet,
when ascending the Munku-Sardik in June and July ; and when ascending the Sochondo in
July 1856, he saw several coveys at from 7500 to 8000 feet altitude. Dr. Dybovvski says (J. f. O.
1873, p. 98) that it is much commoner in the Tunkisch than in the Baikal Mountains, and when
on his way to the Kosogol lake he saw numbers above the limits of wood-growth. Messrs.
Temminck and Schlegel seem to think that a Ptarmigan may occur in Japan, as they saw two
figures of birds resembling the present species in a collection of Japanese drawings.

The Ptarmigan frequents the more elevated rocky and barren localities, where it replaces
the Scotch Grouse and Willow-Grouse ; and it seldom or never descends to the lowlands, where
these latter species have their home, unless driven down by stress of weather in search after
food. The tracts of ground over which it is distributed are much more extensive and more
inaccessible than those lowland ranges which the Red Grouse and Willow-Grouse frequent ; and
hence the present species appears somewhat less numerous, though doubtless it is scarcely less
so, at least than the Willow-Grouse. Should an intruder make his appearance in the range of
the Ptarmigan, or when a bird of prey appears, they squat and remain motionless, trusting
chiefly to the similarity of their plumage to the ground and the herbage to enable them to
escape unseen. Should one utter his croaking note, he is generally on a stone ready to take
wing at a moment's notice ; and when he rises and calls, all the rest of the covey join him. So
close do they squat, and so well does their plumage harmonize at all seasons of the year with
the surroundings, that one may walk through a covey without being aware of the close proximity
of a single individual. In the month of July, according to Macgillivray, and in October,
according to Barth and other Scandinavian naturalists, the Ptarmigans begin to collect in
packs and are found in lower altitudes than in the summer season. Barth (J. f. O. 1869,
p. 93) says that "they then not unfrequently visit the sea-coast, and, being white, are very con-
spicuous ; they appear quite bewildered, and easy to approach within gunshot, whereas when the
ground is covered with snow they are shy, and take wing before one has arrived within any
thing like gunshot-range. They fly tolerably swiftly, in a loose irregular body, their mode of
flight resembling that of the Red Grouse, and when once on the wing will, generally fly some
distance before settling. Their call-note is a harsh croak, not unlike the cry of a frog, and it is
frequently uttered as an alarm-call. The food of the present species consists chiefly of the
tender twigs and leaves of JEmpetrum nigrum ; but Macgillivray says that the crops of specimens
he examined contained a large quantity of fresh green twigs of Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium

3d2

162

6

myrtillus, and Empetrum nigrum, the largest fragments not exceeding five twelfths of an inch in
length. Leaves and twigs of Vaccinium vitis-idcea, Salioc herbacea, seeds of various Juncece and
Cyperacece, and other plants, with berries in autumn, also form part of their food, which is thus,
in fact, for the most part, the same as that of the Eed Grouse. The Grey Ptarmigan, then, is a
bird which, feeding on vegetable substances containing comparatively little nourishment, intro-
duces a large quantity at a time, like a ruminating quadruped, and gradually digests it while
reposing. In feeding, it walks about among the shrubs and herbage, where it is little liable to
be interrupted, so that it has time to select fragments of the proper size and quality. The food
is collected in the crop, gradually pounded in the gizzard, where it is mixed with the solvent
juice of the proventriculus, further diluted in the duodenum, and deposits the chyle along the
intestine, whence it is carried off by the lacteals. As (perhaps on account of its being less
nutritious than animal or farinaceous matter) it requires to pass rapidly along, the parts that
have not been assimilated undergo a further elaboration and absorption in the very large cseca,
which are appendages to the intestine, performing the same office as they, but into which the
coarser fibres do not enter, being carried directly into the rectum."

The Ptarmigan breeds at great altitudes in the mountains, its nest being a mere depression
in the soil, generally under shelter of a stone or low bush, and sparingly lined with grass bents
or thin twigs ; and the eggs closely resemble those of the Eed Grouse — so much so, that I can
give no character by which they can always be distinguished. As a rule, however, the markings
are a trifle larger and bolder. So soon as the young are hatched they are able to run, and at the
least appearance of danger hide with great celerity, and it is almost impossible to find them.

The present species is not by any means so suitable for the table as the Eed Grouse ; but
large numbers are sent to our markets, especially during the winter season, when they come
over from Scandinavia with Willow-Grouse. In Scotland the common Ptarmigan is by no means
free from that scourge of the moors, the Grouse-disease ; and Lord Lilford informs me that in
his shootings in Inverness-shire they suffer from this disease quite as severely, in proportion to
their numbers, as the Eed Grouse.

The present species is the last of the Ptarmigans, or Grouse having feathered feet, found in
the Western Palsearctic Eegion, there being altogether only six species known, viz. : —

L. albus, fall particulars respecting which are given in the present work. It inhabits the lowlands of the
Northern Palsearctic and Nearctic Regions.

L. scoticus, which is restricted to Great Britain.

L. mutus, full particulars respecting which are given above.

L. rupeslris, which inhabits Greenland, Iceland, and Arctic America, particulars as to its range being given
in the present work. I find that there is another name, which is probably a synonym of this species,
viz. Lagopus dispar, Ross, Voy. of Disc. ii. p. 168 (1819). Ross describes the male as "white/' and
the female as " variegated white, black, and rusty rufous," and says that a few were seen in the Waygat
and in Jacobs's Bight.

L. hemileucurus, Avhich inhabits Spitzbergen only. When Mr. Sharpe and I figured and described this
species in a former part of the present work, we laid great stress on the large amount of white on
the tail. Since then I have examined a far larger series, both of this and other Ptarmigans, and
find that the difference in size is perhaps the best character, as Mr. A. B. Brooke has sent me several
specimens of Lagopus mutus from the Pyrenees for examination, one of which has quite as much white

168

on the tail as many specimens of L. hemileucurus, though otherwise it closely resembles Scotch-killed
Ptarmigan. I may add, however, that out of a large series of skins this single specimen is the only one
I have seen with so much white on the base of the tail-feathers, and the other two Pyrenean specimens
agree closely with examples of L. mutus from other parts of Europe. Judging from the specimens lent
to me lately by Professor Newton, the Spitzbergen Ptarmigan is, on an average, much larger in size
than either L. mutus or L. rupestris, as will be seen from the table of measurements given below.
Unfortunately the specimens collected by Dr. von Heuglin, and examined and measured by my late
colleague in the preparation of our article on L. hemileucurus are not now at hand for comparison with
the series I now have before me, which is the more unfortunate as the measurements there given are
much smaller than those of specimens sent to me by Professor Newton ; but Dr. O. Finsch (Zweite
deutsche Nordpolfahrt, ii. p. 199) gives the measurements of the specimens 'collected by Von Heuglin as
wing 8"6-8 - 9 inches, tail 5-6-5-9, and hence, I fear, there is a mistake in the measurements given in our
former article ahove referred to.
leucurus, Swainson (Faun. Bor.-Am. ii. p. 356, pi. lxiii. 1831), differs from all other Ptarmigan in having
the tail white. Professor Spencer P. Baird gives its range as " Northern America to the west ; south-
ward along Rocky Mountains to Cochetope Pass, in latitude 39°."

The following is a list of measurements of those species of Ptarmigan which are most closely
allied to each other : —

L. hemileucurus

L. rupestris
L. mutus .

Culmen.

Wing.

Tail.

Tarsus.

inch.

inches.

inches

inches.

King's Bay, <S

. 0-81

90

61

1:9

do. 2

0-8

8-7

5-9

1-87

do.

0-9

9-1

6-5

20

Wyde Bay.

09

8-8

6-2

1-92

Iceland.

0-93-

-0-95

7-5-7-85

4-75

-5-25

1-2 -1-35

Scotland.

0-95-

-1-0

7-5-7-6

4-55-4-8

1-3 -1-4

Pyrenees.

0-98-

•11

7-2-7-6

4-6 •

-4-8

1-25-1-37

Italy.

0-8

7-8

4-6

1-6

Norway.

1-0

7-6-7-7

4-7 -

-4-8

1-3- 1-35

The specimens figured are, on one Plate, an adult male and female in full breeding-plumage,
the autumn-plumaged bird being figured on the same Plate with L. rupestris in the same dress ;
and the winter plumage is depicted on the same Plate with the winter-killed specimen of
Lagopus albus. The specimens figured are those described, excepting the autumn-plumaged
example, which I chose as being less grey and more nearly approaching L. rupestris ; and all are
in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a,6,b,2. Clash-na-Darroch, Inverness-shire, September (H. J. Elwes). c, d, e. Inverness-shire (H. Barclay),
f, 6 . Maristuen, Norway, June 7th, 1871 (/. A. Harvie Brown), g. Gudbrandsdalen, Norway, November
1870 {Collett). h, 6. Porsangerfiord, Finmark, July 9th, 1872 {Collett).

164

8

E Mus. Lord IAlford.
a, 6 , b, J . Gaick forest, Inverness-shire, June 1867 (L.).

E Mus. Harvie Brown,
a, <5 . Isle of Skye, November 1869.

E Mus. H. B. Tristram,
a. Leadenhall Market, London.

E Mus. E. Hargitt.
a, 6 , b,2 . Cluny Forest, Ross-shire, May 25th, 1871.

E Mus. A. B. Brooke.

a, b, <$ ,2 ad. Luz, Hautes-Pyrenees, April 27th. c, ? . Luz, May 27th, 1872 (A. B. B.). d. Italy (winter
plumage) (Doria),

479

-■ . .

UJ

V)

=>

3

tJ

o

t_3

a:

<" i

o

Q

to

UJ

«*:

CC

165

LAGOPUS SCOTICUS.

(RED GROUSE.)

Lag opus, bonasa scotica, Briss. Ornit. i. p. 199. no. 5 (1760).

Tetrao lagopus, var. -y, Gm. Syst. Nat. ii. p. 750 (1788).

Tetrao scoticus, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 641 (1790, ex Briss.).

Tetrao saliceti (cestate), Temm. Man. d'Ord. 1st ed. p. 296 (1815); Pig. et Gallin. iii.

pp. 208-217 {(estate) (1815).
Lagopus scoticus, Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 27 (1816).
Lagopus scoticus (Lath.), Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xvii. p. 206 (1817).
Tetrao scoticus, Lath., Temm. Man. d'Orn. ii. p. 465, iv. p. 321 (1820).
Oreias, Kaup (Tetrao scoticus, Lath.), Natiirl. Syst. p. 177 (1829).
Tetrao saliceti scoticus, Schlegel, Rev. Crit. pp. lxxvi, 89 (1844).

Bed Grouse, Moor-fowl, Muir-fowl, Muir-cock, Gor-coclc, Red Ptarmigan, English ; Coileach-
fruoch, Cearc-fhraoich, Gaelic.

Figure notabiles.

Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 252 ; id. B. of G. B. iv. pi. vii. ; Werner, Atlas, Faisans, pi. 6 ; Daniel's
Rural Sports, iii. pi. to p. 106 ; Elliot, Monogr. Tetr. pi. xix. ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. pi. 30.
fig. 5 ; Sundevall, Sv. Fogl. lxiii. fig. 3.

<5 ad. nigricanti-brunneus, castaneo vel rufescente transversim vermiculatus : capite, collo et uropygio rufes-
centioribus : remigibus nigricanti-brunneis : cauda nigricanti-brunnea, rectricibus centralibus rufescente
vermiculatis : supra oculos caruncula, nuda coccinea, linea a maxilla et plumis suprk et infra oculos
albis : gutture et pectore superiore lsete ferrugineis : abdomine vix albido notato : tibiae et tarsi plumis
grisescenti-brunneis : rostro corneo : unguibus albicanti-corneis : iride brunnea.

2 ad. mari similis, sed minor, ubique pallidior, supra ocbrascenti-brunnea vix ferrugineo lavata et transversim
nigricante brunneo vermiculata : plumis nonnullis ochrascente brunneo apicatis : macula supraoculari
minore quam in mare : subtus pallidior nee ferruginea sed saturate ochrascenti-brunnea ubique nigri-
cante brunneo vermiculata.

Adult Male in spring (Scotland) . Upper parts blackish, brown, narrowly vermiculated with reddish brown,
head, neck, rump, and upper tail-coverts more rusty red in tinge than the rest of the upper parts ;
quills uniform blackish brown; tail blackish brown, the central feathers vermiculated with rufous
brown, over the eye a warty red comb, feathers over and under the eye, and an irregular line on each
side from the base of the lower mandible white, neck to the upper part of the breast rich dark rusty
red, rest of the underparts blackish brown, more or less vermiculated with dark rusty red, and a few
of the feathers on the abdomen tipped with white ; legs covered to the claws with hair-like feathers,
dull greyish or brownish on the tibise, but merging into dirty white towards the feet ; beak dark horn ;
claws light greyish horn; iris hazel. Total length 15-5 inches, culmen 0-85, wing 8 - 2, tail 4-2,
tarsus 1*8.

166

Adult Female (Otley, Leeds). Differs from the male in being lighter in colour, somewhat smaller, and
lacking the rich rusty or chestnut colour on the neck and breast ; the entire plumage is yellowish
brown, with a reddish tinge, barred and vermiculated with blackish brown, many of the feathers,
especially on the back, having yellowish brown apical spots ; the supraocular comb is much smaller
than in the male, and scarcely visible in some specimens. Total length 14 inches, culmen - 85,
wing 7*5, tail 41, tarsus 1*8.

Young. Young birds in winter show much more white about the eyes and beak, and on the lower breast
and belly, than the adults; they also have white lesser under wing-coverts, whereas in old males
these feathers are often dark brown. Old mares are usually darker and more uniformly coloured than
their younger brethren ; and all are much darker in winter than in summer.

Obs. The Grouse differ somewhat in colour according to locality. Judging from the series I have before
me, I consider that those from Scotland are somewhat the larger, and considerably darker in colour.
Those from the north of England are more rufous ; and the Irish bird is considerably the lightest, and
has a yellowish red tinge in the plumage ; the feathers on the legs are also darker and browner than in
any of the other specimens. I have no specimens from Wales, where they are said to be small and
very light-coloured. As regards size, five specimens I have measured vary as follows : —

Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

inches. inches. inch.

8-0 4-7 1-8

7-8 4-3 1-8

8-2 4-2 1-8

7-5 4T 1-8

79 4-3 1-85

This the Common Grouse of our islands is peculiar to Great Britain, and, excepting that it has
to some extent been domesticated in Sweden, occurs in no other part of the globe. Not only is
it, as its specific appellation implies, found in Scotland, but it is numerous in many parts of
England and Ireland, though not so common as it is in Scotland, where the Grouse-moors have
of later years proved a source of no small emolument to the Scottish landowners ; for in spite of
the Grouse-disease, which has thinned their numbers very materially, the high rents paid by
wealthy Englishmen for Scotch moors do not appear to have at all diminished, and a Grouse-
moor is as essential to the fashionable Englishman of the present day, who at all cares for
shooting, as a box at the opera is to the lady of fashion of the present period. In Scotland the
Grouse is abundant in almost all localities where the heather, whether Calluna vulgaris or
Erica cinerea, is found, both in the lowlands and in the moors, at a considerable altitude above
the sea-level. Mr. Robert Gray (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 234) writes that " throughout Western
Scotland the Bed Grouse is widely distributed, being found on all our moors, ranging from the
base of the highest mountain-peaks down to the patches of heath that skirt the saltwater lochs
of the Outer Hebrides. It is found in almost the whole of the islands of both the inner and the
outer group, being common in Islay, Mull, Skye, Rum, and Jura, where the species is said to be
increasing. It is also tolerably abundant in Lewis, Harris, North and South Uist, and Barra.
All the birds I have examined from these wild wastes appeared to be quite free of disease ; but
as a rule they may be said to be smaller and lighter in colour than those from moors on the

Culmen

inch.

6.

. . .0-9

$.

do. ...

. . .0-8

c?.

. . . 0-85

$.

do. ...

. . . 0-85

?•

Ireland . .

. . .0-8

167

mainland, especially the mountain-ranges of the north-east of Scotland, which invariably yield,
in good seasons, the largest and most beautifully marked Grouse. In many districts the native
Grouse partake of the coloration of the ground in their markings ; thus the finest and darkest
birds are those frequenting rich heathy tracts, while on broken ground of a rocky character,
such as may be seen in the south of Wigtownshire, the Grouse are either more or less mottled,
or are altogether lighter in colour, and less in size and weight. Accidental varieties likewise
occur. I have seen specimens of Grouse that were wholly of a pure buff colour ; the pair of the
kind I examined were shot near Forres, in October 1867, and had for some time previously been
marked objects on the moor were they were killed. I have found the nest of this species at
various elevations in localities where the heather grows in luxuriance, from the shoulder of the
highest hills to the low slopes, almost touching the margin of some of our sea lochs. I remember
finding two nests in the island of Bute in 1867 (a year of disease and great mortality) about
ten yards from highwater mark ; and some of my correspondents send me similar records from
other parts of the country. The food of the Grouse, though consisting, as is well known, of
young heather shoots and various alpine plants, is often varied by farm produce, especially oats —
a grain which is frequently sown on reclaimed patches of land near its haunts. In Wigtownshire
I have observed large numbers frequenting even stubble and turnip fields. On 29th September,
1870, when driving from Glenluce to Portwilliam, I noticed upwards of thirty Grouse perched
on a stone wall dividing two fields in the immediate neighbourhood of a moor. This was late in
the afternoon, just as the dyke was being tipped with the warm hues of approaching sunset ; and
the birds sat in a line, with a curiously regular space between each. None of them appeared to
take notice of the conveyance as it went past ; and on looking back and keeping the wall steadily
in view for some minutes, I saw eight or ten more birds flying in their direction ; so that, in all
likelihood, the assemblage would increase as the evening advanced. On mentioning the circum-
stance to a friend at Portwilliam, I was informed that this habit of settling on stone walls is not
uncommon in that district, as that as many as forty to fifty Grouse are frequently seen ranged on
such perches. Poachers, who are aware of the habit, take a raking shot at them as they sit, and
often in this way secure three or four brace at a single discharge." In England the Grouse
inhabits various parts of the northern, central, and western counties, where the moors are still
remaining and not opened up by the plough. Mr. A. G. More (Ibis, 1865, p. 427) states, on
the authority of Colonel Newman, that it is plentiful on the hills of Monmouthshire, and further
records it as " inhabiting Hereford, Shropshire, Stafford, Radnor (Mr. Bocke), and Pembroke
(Mr. Tracy). Breeds in Derbyshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and in every county north of lat. 54°,
reaching the Outer Hebrides and Orkneys, but not occurring in Shetland." It is found in
Ireland, where, according to Thompson (B. of Irel. ii. p. 47) it " is common throughout the
extensive heathy tracts in Ireland and adjacent islets. It has been remarked to me by sportsmen,
that the Grouse of Ireland and Scotland differ in size and colour. This is apparently correct
when birds of a certain district are compared with those of another ; but it is, in my opinion, a
partial view of the subject, as, in different localities throughout either the one country or the
other, birds will be found equally to vary in these respects. The following observations strikingly
illustrate this opinion: — A friend who shot over the moor of Glenroy, Inverness-shire, in 1844,
observed that the Grouse differed much in their plumage, and were of three varieties, each kind

168

keeping particularly to its own quarters. On the darkest and most heathy ground were the
darkest birds and the largest, weighing generally 2 lb., and sometimes 2 lb. 2 oz. On the rocky
parts they were of a very much lighter brown, while on the stony and heathy ground combined
they were of an intermediate brown, mottled more or less with white."

The habits of the Grouse have been so repeatedly described by the various writers on
British ornithology, and are so well known to every true sportsman, that but little is left to
record. It is a true frequenter of the open treeless moors, never perching, and living entirely on
the ground like its close relative the Willow-Grouse of Northern Europe. It is shy, and by no
means easy to observe and study, as it conceals itself closely amongst the dense heather-growth,
skulking concealed until one gets within a fair distance of it, and then flies away with a whirring
sound, flying low and heavily, uttering its loud call (kok, koJc) as it starts up.

Mr. Alston writes to me that "the ' covies' unite into large 'packs' sooner or later in the
season, according to the district and the weather, and are then almost unapproachable ; in the
south of Scotland Grouse often pack very early in the shooting-season. Early on frosty mornings
the cocks are fond of perching on a ' know,' or hillock, and uttering ther clear ringing ' Er-eck-
kek-kek! wuk! louk! wuk!' At such times they may often be seen to rise perpedicularly in the
air to a height of several feet, and then drop again on the same place."

I am indebted to my friend Mr. H. Seebohm, of Sheffield, who has closely studied the habits
of this species, for the following notes on its habits, as observed by him in Derbyshire : — " The
moors on the Derbyshire side of Sheffield are well stocked with Grouse. They are hilly tracts
of country, for the most part nothing but peat and rock, the former profusely covered with ling.
They abound in springs, which form mountain-streams in the narrow gorges, or produce bogs in
the wider valleys and plateaux, where the ling is often overpowered with a rank growth of
rushes, carices, and coarse grasses. The rocks are a kind of millstone grit, and sometimes appear
as huge isolated masses, but more often as a range of perpendicular cliffs, locally called edges.
The peaks and ridges above these cliffs sometimes rise to an elevation of 1700 feet or more above
the level of the sea.

" Of course these moors are very strictly preserved ; and the only way to ornithologize upon
them with any comfort is to make friends with the gamekeeper. These men are generally very
zealous in looking after their employer's interests, and are indefatigable in pursuing trespassers
and hunting down all sorts of vermin. Weasels, stoats, magpies, and jays are trapped, and
ignominiously nailed on to the rail or fastened on to the wall which forms the gamekeeper's
museum of trophies. They undoubtedly deserve their fate, if the sucking of the eggs or the
devouring of the young of the sacred Grouse constitutes a capital crime. The Carrion-Crow and
the Rook are perhaps greater criminals ; but their extra cunning enables them to escape their
due share of punishment. When the young Grouse begin to run, the Sparrow-Hawk, the
Martin, and, occasionally, a Harrier are special objects of the gamekeeper's care. The greater
number of these Hawks are shot off every year, generally when they have young of their own,
and can be more easily approached within gunshot ; but every spring brings a fresh supply. The
gamekeeper's museum would, however, be but thinly stocked with Hawks did he not eke out
their number with a goodly row of Kestrels, Cuckoos, and Nightjars. It is melancholy to con-
template the wholesale slaughter of these innocent and charming birds. I used to think the

169

gamekeepers shot them to impose upon their masters, and gain credit for the numbers of game
these monsters would have destroyed ; but I am now persuaded that they devoutly believe in the
destructive propensities of all these birds, and that no argument will convince them to the
contrary.

" The Grouse is an early breeder. In the sheltered lower grounds I have heard of eggs
having been seen before the end of March. On the high grounds I have frequently seen eggs
unhatched in June. In some seasons a sudden fall of snow has been known to cover the ground
to such a depth that the poor Grouse have been unable to find their nests ; and after such storms
the gamekeepers pick up eggs here and there, which, as they express it, have been ' laid wide.'

" The situation of the nest varies. The nest is always placed on the ground, usually in the
long heather, often near a clump of very tall ling, or near a protruding rock. The edge of a
patch of moor where the heads have been burnt off a year or two ago is a favourite place, or an
oasis of heather, which has escaped the general conflagration, is a still more likely locality to
find the nest of a Grouse. The motives which guide them in their choice of a site for their nest
seem to be merely the selection of a place where the bird and eggs will be concealed and
sheltered by the long heather, and one that can easily be recognized by themselves.

" The Grouse can scarcely be said to make a nest. It merely scratches a slight hollow on
the ground ; and such material, twigs of heather, dry moss or grass, leaves, &c, as happen to be
on the spot, are allowed to tumble in as lining. The Grouse has never been known to cover its
eggs before leaving the nest, as the Pheasant and Partridge are in the habit of doing.

" The number of eggs laid by the Grouse seems to vary with the propitiousness or otherwise
of the season. In very wet and cold springs the smallest clutches will be from four to five, and
the largest from eight to nine, whilst in very favourable seasons the small clutches will be from
six to seven, and the larger ones from ten to twelve, or even fifteen and seventeen ; but in the
latter cases it is probable that the eggs may not all be the produce of one bird. In an average
year most nests will contain from seven- to eight eggs. Birds which breed late on the high
grounds do not seem to lay fewer eggs than those which breed early in the more sheltered
situations.

" The Grouse does not easily forsake her eggs. You may watch her daily as she sits upon
them ; you may even catch her eye without frightening her away. You may send her off cok-
cok-cok-cokking in alarm, by accidentally almost stumbling over the nest ; and you may handle the
eggs without much danger of causing her to ' forsake.' Gamekeepers are always very anxious to
impress upon trespassers the fact that it is of the utmost importance not to disturb the birds
during the breeding-season. The real truth is, that, if strangers were allowed on the moors at
this season of the year, the danger would be, not that the birds would forsake the eggs, but that
the eggs would forsake the birds.

" The eggs of the Grouse are not subject to much variation. They are usually lf£ inch long
by 1\% broad, and are of an almost uniform oval shape, the smaller end being scarcely more
pointed than the larger end. Exceptions to this rule, however, are occasionally met with.
Towards the end of May 1864 or 1865 (I remember it was Derby-day) I took a nest of Grouse,
during a heavy snow-storm, containing five eggs, which would probably have hatched the following
day. They measure 1 f § inch by 1^ ; and, as might be expected in eggs which were longer and

4l

170

6

narrower than usual, they are much more pointed at the small end than is usually the case.
The ground-colour of the egg of the Grouse is usually a pale olive, spotted and blotched all over
with dark red-brown. The spots are frequently so confluent as almost entirely to conceal the
ground-colour. In fresh-laid eggs the brown is often very red, in some instances almost
approaching crimson. It appears to darken as it thoroughly dries, and sometimes almost
approaches black. When fresh-laid the colour is not very fast ; and before the eggs are hatched
the beauty of the original colouring is generally very much lessened by large spots coming off
altogether, no doubt from the friction of the feathers of the bird when sitting. If the weather
is wet when the bird begins to sit, this is much more the case. When the colour has once
become thoroughly dry, it will bear washing in water without injury. The colour of the eggs is
admirably adapted for the purpose of concealment from the prying eyes of Rooks, Crows, and birds
of prey, being very much like the mixture of moss, lichens, and peat where they are laid. Most
of the eggs laid come to maturity. I once asked a gamekeeper to watch half a dozen nests
which were near his house. He told me that out of forty-nine eggs he counted forty-seven
chicken Grouse.

"As soon as the young are hatched, especially in dry seasons, the hen takes her brood down
to the more swampy parts of the moor. Unlike the Black Grouse, whose remote ancestors
appear to have embraced Mohammedan views on this point, the Red Grouse is a strictly mono-
gamous bird, and remains paired all the year round. While the hen is sitting her mate is
generally not far off, and gives the alarm by flying off at the approach of supposed danger,
uttering his loud kok, kok, kok. It would appear that the cock does not take his turn at the
duties of incubation ; but when the young are hatched both parents wait upon them.

" The food of the Grouse is chiefly the flowers and young shoots of the ling ; the capsules
of carices are also often found in their crop. Were it not for the sportsman, the Grouse would
live a very quiet life on his native heath, as much so as the poultry on the farms in the valley.
He does not migrate in spring or autumn. His utmost excursion is confined to an occasional
raid into the nearest farms when food is scarce. In very severe and long-continued frost and
snow I have known isolated instances of Grouse being caught in the streets of Sheffield.

" The Grouse is not generally a conspicuous bird on the moors. You may often drive for
miles without seeing more than one or two. In an evening you may sometimes see three or
four sitting on a stone wall ; but for the most part they live upon the ground. I never but once
saw a Grouse in a tree ; and then it had flown across a broad valley and alighted in a wood. It
seemed so little at home, that it remained with its wings partially expanded and assisting to
support itself by the adjacent twigs until I came up, when it flew away.

"Grouse-shooting begins on the 12th of August. In average seasons there will then be
but few ' cheepers' (birds whose parents have been disturbed in their first nests and haye bred
again). At the same time most of the young birds will not be so strong on the wing as to
prevent the second-rate shots from making a bag.

"The moors in the neighbourhood of Sheffield sell at from 40£. to 50£. per acre. This
value is almost entirely derived from the Grouse. On some moors a few sheep are seen for the
summer ; but many are entirely devoted to Grouse. For the first few days Grouse are shot over
dogs, pointers, or setters. A good shot, on a good moor, will bag his twenty-five to thirty-five

171

brace the first day. In a short time the birds become very wild, generally rising beyond range.
They also ' pack ' on the high grounds, especially before stormy weather. The Grouse-shooters
then resort to driving. The guns are partially concealed in erections made of turf, and the birds
in the next valley are driven by the gamekeepers and their assistants over the brow of the inter-
vening hill. In the thick of the drive the shooting is fast and furious, and enormous bags are
sometimes made. Grouse-driving is excellent sport for the mere marksman, requiring a very
quick hand and a very accurate eye ; but a more sportsmanlike occupation is Grouse-stalking.
The moors are interspersed in many parts with narrow winding valleys, locally called ' groughs,'
where you may often get a chance shot at a Grouse, when you have learnt where to look for
him. Nothing is more delightful than to stroll up these groughs in spring, on the edges of the
streams which generally run down them. The sloping banks are a favourite breeding-place of
the King-Ouzel ; sometimes a chance Black Grouse nests in a quiet corner ; the Twite is generally
to be seen ; and, strange to say, the Grasshopper Warbler may often be heard. In the lower ground
you may often ' flush ' a Snipe ; and as you emerge from the grough, on the higher plateaux you
are not unlikely to come upon a Curlew or two, or a party of Golden Plovers ; and if you are
lucky, you may drop upon their nests. In early spring you may chance on a small flock of
Dotterel, resting on the hills during their migrations ; but of course the Grouse remains always
the bird par excellence of the moors."

During the last few years the Grouse have greatly decreased in numbers, owing to a disease
the exact nature of which appears still to be to some extent undecided, but which by various
authorities has been referred to a variety of causes ; and the numerous letters to the ' Field '
and other sporting newspapers clearly show the interest taken in the subject by most sporting
men. Some have given it as their opinion that the plague is caused by excessive interbreeding;
others put it down to overcrowding, underfeeding, " battery shooting," and other equally varied
causes. Canon Tristram ascribes it in part to the excessive extermination of the birds of prey,
which, feeding on the weaker birds, act as a sort of sanitary police by preventing these from
transmitting their weaknesses to the next generation. The most reasonable theory is given by
Dr. Spencer Cobbold, who, in a pamphlet lately published on the subject, gives it as his opinion
that it is caused by internal parasites which, in the struggle for existence which is one of the
great laws of nature, have gained the upper hand. He is careful to state that the mere presence
of internal entozoa does not necessarily result from a vitiated state of the body of the birds, as
many healthy specimens may and do contain these internal parasites to a certain extent. He
states that two species of entozoa are concerned in the production of the Grouse-disease, the one
being the Grouse tapeworm {Taenia calva, Baird), and the other the Grouse-strongle, which he
has provisionally named Strongylus pergracilis, it being, he believes, new to science. After having
carefully examined four diseased Grouse, he writes as follows : — " Examples of this new parasite
occupied the whole length of both of the intestinal caeca. They were present in greater or less
abundance in all four of the birds. The male parasite gave an average of one third of an inch
length, the females extending up to three eighths of an inch, or rather more. The latter
had their oviducts crowded with eggs arranged in single file, displaying various stages of yolk-
segmentation ; but I did not notice any fully formed embryos. It may afford some notion of
the extraordinary abundance of these nematode entozoa, when I state that from less than a

4l2

172

8

teaspoonful of the csecal contents I obtained many hundreds of specimens. I am confident that
no one of the four Grouse contained less than a thousand examples ; and I believe that one of
the more diseased and emaciated birds contained fully ten times that number." Referring to
the presence of tapeworms and strongles in both healthy and diseased birds, he says that " the
only difference between impoverished and healthy Grouse in this latter respect appears to have
been, that in the case of the birds out of condition we encountered a relatively larger number of
these nematode worms. It is merely the difference between thousands and tens of thousands ;
but this disparity, if considered in association with the varying strength of constitution of indi-
vidual avian bearers, will be amply sufficient, in my opinion, to account for either impoverishment
or retention of health, as the case may be. That in some seasons the tapeworms may acquire
ascendancy, and thus become the sole cause of mortality amongst the Grouse, is quite possible ;
and under any circumstances their presence would be likely to aggravate a disorder, whether
the latter be proven to be due to another form of parasitism, or to disease arising from causes
altogether independent of entozoal infection. In the present epidemic, I believe the disease to
be entirely due to parasites."

Dr. Cobbold points out that the presence of the Grouse-disease does not make the birds
unfit for the table — a most necessary remark, — although, after reading the elaborate and careful
details he gives of the disease, I should have as little appetite for a dish of Grouse as I have felt
for sausages after having heard one of his graphic lectures on the internal parasites of the human
body ; for I have generally left feeling that I was most unwillingly harbouring a small army of
these unpleasant lodgers. The learned doctor himself proved the above assertion as to the fitness
for culinary purposes of diseased Grouse, by partaking of portions of the diseased Grouse he had
previously dissected. He says that " both birds were eatable, there being no new or disagreeable
flavour attached to either," but that " one of them was comparatively dry and insipid."

As yet no cure appears to have been found for this fell disease ; but should it in time become
better understood, it is probable that some means may be found to, at least, alleviate it, or prevent
its further spread ; for so severe has been the pestilence that some moors have been so decimated
as to render the shooting over them, for some seasons at least, almost out of the question. At
the commencement of the present season I was told by the poulterers in Leadenhall Market that
they had never known so short a supply of Grouse, caused, as they believed, solely by the
Grouse-disease.

Mr. Seebohm, writing to me respecting the habits of the Grouse, says, speaking of the
diseased birds, that " they become thin and out of condition, and are frequently picked up dead.
This disease generally appears in spring, when the Grouse are sitting. The cause of it has given
rise to much controversy. The birds which have died of the disease are frequently found, when
dissected, to be infested with a small parasitic worm in the intestines. Some sportsmen maintain
that these parasites are the cause of the weakness and subsequent death of the Grouse. Others,
on the other hand, assert that the abundance of parasitic worms is only a symptom of, and caused
by, the diseased state of the bird. Grouse, in common with other animals, are subject to the
attacks of two species of parasitic worms. The long species does not appear to be particularly
injurious. So far as I have been able to learn, it attacks principally the young birds. It is not
an uncommon thing on the Sheffield moors to shoot fine plump young Grouse with four or five

178

inches of tapeworm hanging from them. The cause of the prevalence of these most injurious
parasites is probably insufficient or improper food. In early spring (i. e. during the breeding-
season) Grouse seem to require the young shoots of the heather as food to keep them in a healthy
condition. It sometimes happens that these young shoots or buds are nipped by a late frost,
which turns them all brown. It has been frequently observed that upon moors where such has
been the case the Grouse-disease has soon made its appearance. Upon some moors the Grouse-
disease has doubtless been caused by the young shoots of the heather having been eaten off by
sheep, so that there has not been sufficient left for the Grouse. On other moors the same result
has happened from an overstocking of the birds themselves. It is obviously of great importance
to the health of the birds that the moors should neither be overstocked with Grouse nor sheep.
The preserving of Grouse upon the moors is a more artificial arrangement than at first sight it
appears. It is true that we thin them pretty effectually during some months of the year, after
the 12th of August, when the chance of scarcity of food is over. Nature's Grouse-shooting, on
the other hand, begins some months earlier. Before the spring food has scarcely made its
appearance, she sends her migratory Hawks to the moors. Should any disease show itself
because the Grouse were too many for their food, the birds of prey would doubtless soon stamp
it out, removing at once cause and effect.

" Some gamekeepers assert that Grouse-disease is an affection of the liver, caused by long-
continued cold and rainy weather in spring ; but the probability is that the seat of disease, where
such exists, is rather in the lungs. This year (1873) has been a bad year for Grouse on the
Sheffield moors. .Towards the end of May a great many dead birds were picked up in an
emaciated condition. Some of these were carefully dissected by Mr. B. Cartledge, a well-known
veterinary surgeon in the town. He pronounced the cause of death to be in all cases chronic
inflammation of the lungs. Many of them had the long tapeworm in the intestines; but he did
not detect the smaller parasitic worm."

Respecting the variation in the weight of Grouse, Mr. E. R. Alston writes to me as follows : —
" Red Grouse vary much in their weight in different districts. They are usually heavier towards
the end of the season — a fact probably due to the reduction of the insensible perspiration (cf.
White's ' Selborne '). In the Upper Ward of Lanarkshire I have found the average weight in
August to be between twenty-one and twenty-two ounces, whereas in October it was over twenty-
three ounces. Males are much heavier than females. I have a note of an old cock killed in
November which weighed twenty-eight ounces, and a hen, shot the same time, twenty-four ounces."

Eggs of the Grouse in my collection are undistinguishable from those of the Willow-Grouse
either in colour, shape, or size. Mr. Seebohm gives above so excellent a description of the eggs
of this species, that I need add nothing further on the subject, except that, as a rule, those of the
Red Grouse are rather the redder and darker of the two.

The specimens figured and described are in the collection of Mr. F. Bond.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.
a,b,<3 . Clash na Darroch, Scotland, October 1867 (Elwes). c, $. Aboyne (J. Waters).

174

10

E Mus. F. Bond,
a, <S . Scotland, b, <5 , c, . Otley, near Leeds, December 9th, 1868 (F. B.).

E Mus. A. B. Brooke,
a, 2 ■ Colebrooke, co. Fermanagh, Ireland, December 13th, 1871 (A. B. B.).

E Mus. J. H. Gurnet/, jun.

((,($. Clash na Darroch, Scotland, October 1871 (Elwes). b, $ . Scotland, December 21st, 1867. c, J
Bridlington, Yorkshire {Jones) . d,pull. Wolsingham, July 26th, 1868. e,f,pull. Yorkshire (Jones).

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ROCK PTARMIGAN.

LAGOPUS RUPESTSIS

175

LAGOPUS KUPESTKIS.

(ROCK-PTARMIGAN.)

The Rock-Grouse, Penn. Arct. Zool. ii. p. 312. no. 184 (1785).

Tetrao rupestris, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 751 (1788, ex Penn.).

Tetrao lagopus, Sabine, Trans. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 530 (1818).

Tetrao islandorum, Faber, Prodr. island. Ornith. p. 6 (1822).

Tetrao islandicus, C. L. Brehm, Lehrb. Eur. Vog. i. p. 440 (1823).

Lagopus reinhardtii, C. L. Brehm, torn. cit. p. 986 (1823).

Tetrao (Lagopus) mutus, Swainson, Faun. Bor.-Am. ii. p. 350 (1831, nee Leach).

Tetrao (Lagopus) rupestris (Gm.), Swainson, torn. cit. p. 354 (1831).

Lagopus americanus, Aud. Syn. p. 207 (1839).

Lagopus islandicus, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 264 (1855).

Lagopus grosnlandicus, C. L. Brehm, torn. cit. p. 264 (1855).

Lagopus rupestris (Gm.), Baird, B. of N. Am. p. 635 (1858).

Bjupa Keri, Rjiipkarri, Icelandic.

Figure notabiles.
Audubon, B. of Am. pi. 301 ; Elliot, Monogr. Tetr. xxiii, ; Sundevall, Sv. Fogl. pi.' 73. fig. 2.

6 ad. capite, collo, et corpore supra, pectore et hypockondriis nigricanti-brunneis, rufescente brunneo trans-
fasciatis et vermiculatis : pileo et loris saturatioribus, nigricantibus : mento albo : caruncula, superciliari
nuda, coccinea : alis, pectore imo et abdomine albis : remigibus primariis rhacbibus fuscis : supra-
caudalibus sordide brumieis, nigro vermiculatis : subcaudalibus albo et nigricaute immixtis : cauda
nigra, vix albido apicata.

2 ad. pileo, nucha et corpore supra nigricanti-brunneis, ochraceo transfasciatis et vermiculatis: uropygio
pallidiore : alis et cauda, ut in mare, sed tectricibus alarum intimis plumis dorso concoloribus immixtis :
mento ocbraceo, albido notato : corpore subtus sordide ocbraceo, nigricante fasciato et vermiculato :
abdomine centraliter albido, ocbraceo lavato : subcaudalibus ocbraceis nigro fasciatis.

Adult Male in breeding -plumage (Kirkjuvogr, Iceland, 4th July, with female and eggs). Head, neck, back,
and upper parts generally, breast, and flanks blackish brown, barred and vermiculated with reddish
brown ; crown and lores nearly black ; entire chin white ; over the eye a tolerably conspicuous light
vermilion comb ; wings, abdomen, and lower part of the breast white, shafts of the primaries dark
brown ; under tail-coverts white, intermixed with blackish feathers, tipped with white ; tail blackish,
tipped with white ; the longer upper tail-coverts dull brown, narrowly vermiculated with blackish ; bill
dark brownish horn ; iris dark hazel. Total length 14-ij inches, culmen 10, from the nostril to the tip
of the bill 0-45, wing 7'82, tail 4"95, tarsus 1-2.

Adult Female in breeding-plumage (Kirkjuvogr, 4th July). Crown, nape, back, and upper parts generally

2B

176

blackish brown, barred and vermiculated with ochre, which becomes lighter towards the tail ; wings and
tail as in the male, but the inner wing-coverts intermixed with feathers similarly coloured to those on
the back ; chin dull ochre marked with white ; underparts generally dull ochre-yellow, barred and
vermiculated with black ; centre of the abdomen dirty yellowish white ; under tail-coverts bright
ochre, barred with black. Culmen 093, from the nostril to the tip of the bill 037, wing 4'75,
tail 4-75, tarsus l - 2.

Male in autumn (Ofjord, Iceland). Resembles Lagopus mutus in a similar stage of plumage, but is much
browner, and not clear grey on the back like that species.

Nestling (Hafaleita, Iceland, 9th July). Covered with soft down; crown chestnut-red, bordered with black,
on the forehead intermixed with yellowish : a white line over the eye joining at the nape; lores and a
line through the eye black ; upper parts black, intermixed with reddish and tawny yellow ; underparts
dull white, tinged with sulphur grey.

Winter plumage. Undistinguishable from L. mutus.

The present species, which, though closely allied to our common European Ptarmigan, is clearly
distinguishable from it, except in the winter dress, is found in Iceland, Greenland, and Arctic
America, but does not appear ever to have occurred in any part of the main Palsearctic
continent, where it is replaced by Lagopus mutus in the high lands, and Lagopus albus in
the subalpine regions, the former alone being found in Great Britain, but Lagopus albus is
also met with in the Nearctic region. According to Professor Newton the present species is
" pretty numerous in Iceland, and not confined to the mere mountain-tops, as are their brethren
in Scotland and other parts of Europe, but may be found in almost all places where berries
grow."

In Greenland it is likewise a common bird. Mr. A. Pansch, who collected a series of
specimens when on the German Arctic Expedition, says that " they were common throughout
the winter on Shannon Island, especially in the lower parts of the island near the harbour, and
were seen in coveys of from six to twenty individuals. They were so little shy that they could
be killed with ease ; and some were even knocked down with the ramrod. Most of them had
their crops filled with small willow sprouts, and leaves and buds of Saxifraga, Cerastium, and
Ranunculus; whereas those obtained in August had their crops full of seed-pods and leaves
and sprouts of various plants. When the sun appeared they became very rare, and were seldom
seen. Dr. Copeland saw a pair on the wing on the 1st of May, which appeared to be still in full
winter-plumage ; and he shot a male late in May, which was in full winter dress, except that a
few brown feathers were amongst the lesser wing-coverts ; but the comb over the eye, and the
testicles, were very fully developed. We only heard the voice of the Ptarmigan once, late in
May. It consisted merely of a harsh note. I infer that the Ptarmigan withdraw into the
interior during the summer, as they there find a richer vegetation ; whereas in the winter the
lowlands near the coast are more favourable, as the storms prevent the snow from collecting,
and the birds can reach the willows with greater ease." In America it is stated to occur
throughout the Arctic portion of that continent.

According to Sir John Richardson " Hutchins reports that it is numerous at the two
extremities of Hudson's Bay, but does not appear in the middle settlement (York and Severn

177

Factories), except in very severe seasons, when the Willow-Grouse are scarce ; and Captain
Sabine informs us that they abound on Melville Island (lat. 74° to 75°) in the summer. It
arrived there in its snow-white winter dress on the 12th of May, 1820; at the end of that
month the females began to assume their coloured plumage, which was complete by the first
week in June, the change at the latter period being only in its commencement with the males.
Some of the males were killed as late as the middle of June in their unaltered winter-plumage.
In this respect the species differs from the Willow-Grouse, whose males first assume the summer
colours. The Eock-Grouse is found also on Melville Peninsula and the Barren Grounds, seldom
going further south in winter than latitude 63° in the interior, but descending along the coast
of Hudson's Bay to latitude 58°, and in severe seasons still further to the southward. It also
occurs on the Rocky Mountains as far south as latitude 55°. The Rock-Grouse in its manners
and mode of living resembles the Willow-Grouse, except that it does not retire so far into the
woody country in winter. Contrary, however, to what Hearne says, it is frequent in open woods
on the borders of the lakes in that season, particularly in the sixty-fifth parallel of latitude,
though perhaps the bulk of the species remain on the skirts of the Barren Grounds. It
hatches in June. The ground-colour of the egg is, according to Captain Sabine, a pale reddish
brown, and is irregularly blotched and spotted with darker brown." Audubon (B. of Am. v.
p. 122) writes respecting its occurrence in Labrador as follows : — " Whilst at Labrador I was
informed by Mr. Jones that a smaller species of Ptarmigan than that called the Willow-Grouse
(Lagopus saliceti) was abundant on all the hills around Bras d'Or during the winter, when he
and his son usually killed a great number, which they salted and otherwise preserved — and that
in the beginning of summer they removed from the coast into the interior of the country, where
they bred in open grounds, never, like the Willow- Grouse, retreating to the wooded parts.
They seldom appear at Bras d'Or until the last of the Wild Geese have passed over, or before the
cold has become intense, and the plains deeply covered with snow. While about his house they
repair to the most elevated hill-tops, from which the violence of the winds has removed the snow.
There they feed on the mosses and lichens attached to the rocks, as well as on the twigs and
grasses scantily found in such places at that season. They keep in great packs, and when dis-
turbed are apt to fly to a considerable distance, shifting from one hill to another, often half a
mile off." Mr. Dall met with it as far west as Alaska, and writes (B. of Alaska, Trans. Chic. Ac.
Sc. 1869, p. 289) that "it is not uncommon in the Gens du Large \}.Romanzoff~\ Mountains,
north-west of Fort Yukon, and has been obtained at Fort Yukon by Sibbeston, and in the
former locality by Mr. M c Dougal. It is not found further south or west to the best of my
knowledge."

In its habits and mode of nidification the present species closely resembles its near ally the
common Ptarmigan. I have a large series of its eggs from Greenland obtained by Mr. Erichsen's
collectors, which are unclistinguishable from those of that species.

The specimens figured are :- — on the one Plate a male and female in full breeding-plumage ;
on the second Plate another adult female with young in down, and a bird shot in early spring
just in the change, with the white plumage intermixed with brown feathers. On the same Plate
with Lagopus mutus in autumn plumage a specimen of the present species is also figured in the
same stage of plumage to illustrate the difference.

2b2

178

4
In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, cj. Ofjord, Iceland, autumn of 1871. b, c, d, e,f, g. Ofjord, winter 1871 (Ericksen). h. Autumn plumage,
Greenland {Moschler). i, ?. Lichtenfels, South Greenland, 12th August, 1871 (O.Finsch).

E Mus. A. Newton.

a, cj . Reykjavik, Iceland, May 11th, 1858. b,<S', c, 5. Kirkjuvogr, S.W. Iceland, July 4th, 1858. d, 2 ■
Mitdalr, Iceland, July 19th, 1858. e, 6. Hafaleiti, S.W. Iceland, June 18th, 1858 {A. N.). f, g. S.W.
Iceland, September 20th to 25th, 1859 [A. Randoup). h, i. Illartlek, Greenland, June 21st, 1867.
k. Claushavn, Greenland, June 25th, 1867. I. Greenland, autumn plumage, m. Illartlek, July 27th.
n,pullus. Greenland. o,pullus. Hafaleiti, S.W. Iceland, July 9th, 1858 {A. N.).

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179

LAGOPUS HEMILEUCUEUS.

(SPITSBERGEN PTARMIGAN.)

Lagqpus alpinus, var. hyperborea, Sundev. in Gaimard, Voy. en Scand. pi. (1843).
Lagopus hyperborea, Malmgr. J. f. O. 1863, p. 371.
Lagopus hemileucurus, Gould, P. Z. S. 1858, p. 354.
Lagopus hyperboreus, Elliot, Monogr. Tetraon. pi. 24 (1865).

Figures notabiles.
Gaimard, Voy. en Scandin. pi. — ; Elliot, Monogr. Tetraon. pi. 24.

6 autumnalis aurato-fulvus, ubique nigro marmoratus vel transfasciatus : pileo distinctius fasciato : ala tota
alba, primariarum scapis nigris, tectricibus nonnullis majoribus dorsalibus et secundariis intimis dorso
concoloribus : tectricibus supracaudalibus longissimis caudam subsequantibus : Cauda nigra, parte basali
et fascia apicali conspicue albis, rectricibus duabus mediis fere omniDo albis, parte mediana, ovali nigra,
pennis exterioribus majorem partem pogonii externi late albo marginatis : pileo laterali cum gutture
toto et pectore superiore dorso concoloribus, mento et collo laterali vix albicantibus : corpore reliquo
subtiis albo, hypochondriarum plumis nonnullis dorso concoloribus sparsim notatis.

Female in summer plumage. As is tbe case witb all otber Ptarmigans in their summer plumage, the primaries
are white ; in this species most of the secondaries and the wing-coverts are also white ; the remainder
of the plumage is rayed with black and ochreous yellow, the black predominating on the upper surface,
while the feathers of the flanks are beautifully and equally barred with these two colours ; the feet are
white, the nails jet-black, and the bill brown. The total length of the bird is about 16 inches, of its
wing 8| inches, tail 5|, tarsi If. (/. Gould, P. Z. S. 1858, p. 354.) -

Male in autumn plumage. Above golden-buff, mottled and barred with black, which colour sometimes takes
the character of minute spots, sometimes of transverse bars, some of which are broader than others, and
sometimes the black extends over the greater part of the feathers ; on the rump, scapulars, and inter-
scapulary region are a few white feathers ; wing-coverts and quills pure white, the shafts of the primaries
for the most part black, some of the inner greater coverts and all the innermost secondaries buff, barred
with black, like the back ; tail white at the base and tip, black in the centre, the two middle feathers
for the most part white, with an irregular oval mark in the centre, and the outside feather broadly edged
with white ; cheeks, throat, and upper part of the breast coloured like the back, the feathers on the chin
and sides of the neck white at the base, and a white feather appearing here and there on the breast ;
rest of the under surface of the body white ; the flanks interspersed with a good many tawny feathers ;
bill horn-black, yellowish at the base ; toes yellowish horn-brown. Total length 15"2 inches, culmen
0"65, wing 7'6, tail 5 - 7, tarsus 1"1. Another specimen, killed on the same day, is still more advanced
into the winter plumage, being almost entirely white, with remains of tawny feathers only on the head,
neck, breast, and scapulars, and a few feathers protruding on the flanks and lower part of the back;
the entire wing is white. Total length 155 inches, culmen 07, wing 7'6, tail 5'8, tarsus 1*1.

Winter plumage. White, with perfectly black lores ; besides the two white rectrices there are seven black

3n

180

2

on either side, 1 50 millimetres long, and the hase white for 50 millimetres, the shaft white ; quills
with a dark median stripe along the feather. Total length, moderately stretched, 450 millimetres,
wing 228, tail 150. It is thus larger than Gould's female. (C. J. Sundevall in Elliot's Tetraonina.)
The winter plumage of the Spitsbergen Ptarmigan is like that of the Scandinavian bird, except that the
feathers are much longer, bushier, and peculiarly soft. In size they greatly exceed the Scandinavian
species, as the one shot at Wyde Bay measured over 17 Swedish inches from the tip of the beak to the
end of the tail. {A. J. Malmgren, J. f. O. 1863, p. 370.)

Although many ornithologists have considered the characters by which this bird is distinguished
to be of no real importance, we, on the other hand, believe that it constitutes a distinct species.
Professor Newton, who has examined the same specimens as ourselves, sums up his remarks on
them in the following words: — "On a former occasion (Ibis, 1865, p. 504) I expressed a belief
that the Lag opus of Spitsbergen, first described by Mr. Gould under the name of L. hemileucurus,
was identical with L. rupestris. I now wish to state that I have much doubt on that point, and
that I am inclined to recognize its distinctness. Hofrath von Heuglin has within the last few
days kindly sent for my inspection some birds' skins collected by him in that country last year.
Among these are three specimens of Lagopus ; and on comparing them with a tolerably good
series of examples of L. rupestris from Greenland (L. reinhardti) and Iceland (L. islandorum), I
find that the rectrices of all the Spitsbergen birds are so much variegated with white as fully to
deserve the name applied by Mr. Gould, while those of L. rupestris are invariably black, except
in some cases at the tip. Furthermore, one of the Spitsbergen birds, marked ' male ' by Herr
von Heuglin, though apparently fully coloured on the breast and back, is of a very different shade
from any male of L. rupestris that I remember having seen. Under these circumstances I think
that it is quite possible that L. hemileucurus is entitled to specific rank, though it is certainly
more nearly allied to L. rupestris than to L. alpinus." In order that the differences in the
coloration of the tails of the present species and L. rupestris may be better appreciated, we have
had a woodcut executed to illustrate the distinctive characters.

Professor Sundevall, in a communication furnished to Mr. Elliot's great work on the Grouse,
gives an account of three specimens in the Stockholm Museum, in both summer and winter
plumage, and, after stating full particulars concerning these examples, concludes in the following
words : — " On comparing these birds with the males from Greenland and Iceland, these last are
found to be much smaller, and the base of the rectrices much less white, which colour does not
extend further on the shaft than on the web ; also the shafts of the remiges are black for their
whole breadth. As these differences seem to be constant, they are sufficient to render the
Spitsbergen bird always recognizable from the other two, and thus entitle it to be considered a
distinct form, if we may not even believe it to be of different origin. I have a female from
Greenland, and in this the white basal part of the outer rectrices has really a little difference in
form from the male's ; it is larger on the outer side. From the European Lagopus they all differ,
the males more, the females from Greenland less ; but they come very close to it in the form of
the bill, black lores," &c. Mr. Elliot finishes up his very complete account of this species thus : —
" As it seems pretty evident that the extent of the white on the tail varies in different specimens
(a fact which I have noticed in a large number of examples of Lagopus albus), the claims of this
bird to specific distinction rest upon its large size, which, at the best, is a very questionable

181

sufficiency ; and it would seem to be most likely the Lagopus rv/pestris ; but without any number
of examples to enable me to form my opinion, I have deemed it best to give a figure of the
female sent to Mr. Gould, and to hope that some not very distant day will afford the material for
rightfully determining what is now so doubtful a point." In the specimens which we examined
we found that the bill was very little (if any) larger than in L. rupestris ; and the claim of the bird
to specific distinction rests, in our opinion, not so much on the larger size, as Mr. Elliot suggests
(for this seems to vary also), as upon the difference of coloration and upon the constant difference
in colour of the tail.

The late Mr. Evans sent the following account of the species to Mr. Gould: — "The skin
sent is the only one I have from Spitsbergen, although I shot many. The birds were so plentiful
that, thinking I could always procure examples, I neglected to preserve any at the time, and was
obliged to come away at last with only this one. The hen birds had all assumed their summer
plumage ; but the males had not changed a feather, though the old ones, which had become
very ragged and dirty, would almost fall off on being touched. I started one hen from her nest,
or rather from the little dry hollow where she had collected a few stems of grass, and found two
eggs ; these were all we met with ; the nest was placed in the high fields, where, in the dry parts,
scarcely any vegetation is to be seen, while the swampy portions, where the snow had melted,
were covered with coarse grass and the dwarf willow, which is the only thing approaching to a
shrub on these barren, treeless islands. The specimen sent was shot on the 27th of June, on
the south shore of Ja Sound, in about 77|-° north latitude. The neighbouring country consisted

182

of a belt of swampy ground covered with rank grass, with high, rugged and barren mountains
rising behind, covered with snow, except on their sharp ridges and steep sides ; these mountains,
which are interspersed with vast snow-clad plains, stretch away for miles inland, and rise with
beautiful cones in the distance; here and there, in a few sheltered spots, a scanty supply of
small flowers is to be found, mostly belonging to the following families : — Draba, Eanunculus,
Saxifraga, &c. The dark-grey rocks were covered with lichens in great variety, but of a gloomy
and sombre hue, in strict keeping with the wildness of the scene ; here, too, the reindeer-moss
grew in great abundance. I may remark that the Ptarmigans were so tame that we could easily
have knocked them down with a long stick — doubtless from being so unaccustomed to the intru-
sion of human visitors."

Dr. A. J. Malmgren (J. f. O. 1863, p. 370) writes as follows: — "The Ptarmigan occurs
sparingly on the coast of Spitsbergen. On the 4th of June I saw a pair at Wyde Bay in full
winter plumage ; and Mr. Pertensen shot one of them with a bullet : this example is now in
the Stockholm Museum. The most northern locality where Ptarmigan are found is on the north
shore of Brandywyne Bay, in 80° 24'. I saw a pair there flying near the summit of a mountain,
but could not approach them, as the mountain was inaccessible. At Lomme Bay, Ptarmigan with
their young were seen on the 22nd of August. Their food consists of leaves and buds of
SaxifragcB, Salicc polaris" &c. Two years later he published the accompanying observations: —
" It is rare on Spitsbergen. On the last expedition I only observed a single male on the Isefjord,
which I shot, and which is now in the Stockholm Museum. It was found between the rocks, in
a cup-shaped valley, about 2000 feet above the sea-level, and fed on flowers, flower-buds, and
leaves of Dnjas octopetala, which grew so abundantly there that it carpeted the ground. In its
crop I found nothing but fresh remains of Dryas. I only once heard its note, which was a deep
bass note, like arrr or errr, and resembled the croak of a frog (Rana temporaria). Mr. O.
Fabricius says the same of the note of the Greenland Ptarmigan. We did not discover the nest
on our last expedition ; and, as far as I know, Edward Evans is the only person who has done so ;
he found a nest containing two eggs, in June 1855, at Isefjord."

Dr. Th. von Heuglin states " I only observed this species at Eisfjord (Sassen Bay,
Advent Bay, and Alkhorn), where it is not rare, as my companion shot twenty-one in a few
hours. It occurs also in Northern Spitsbergen. The statement of Mr. B. von Lowenigh to the
effect that it is common at Whales Point (Erganzungsheft no. 16 der Geogr. Mitth. p. 42) must
rest on an error. It will be interesting to ascertain which form of Lagopus is found on Nowaja
Semlia. Will it be L. Irachydactylus ? "

From Dr. von Heuglin's specimens our Plate has been drawn ; and we have to express to
Dr. Otto Finsch our best thanks for allowing us, on behalf of the Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein
of Bremen, to retain the skins for some time, so as to allow of a drawing being made.

The descriptions of the summer and winter plumages have been drawn from other sources ;
but the autumnal dress is here noticed and figured for the first time. A good plate of the
summer dress is given by Mr. Elliot (I. c).

483

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LAGOHJS AL8US.

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ass

LAGOPUS MUTUS.

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LAGOPUS ALBITS.

(WILLOW-PTARMIGAN.)

The White Partridge, Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds, pi. 72 (1748).

Tetrao lagopus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 275, no. 4 (1766, ex Edw.).

Lagopede de la Baye d'Hudson, Buff. Hist. Ois. ii. p. 310 (1772).

Tetrao alius, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 750 (1788).

Tetrao lapponicus, Gm. torn. cit. p. 751.

Tetrao cachinnans, Retzius, Faun. Sv. p. 210 (1800).

Tetrao saliceti, Temm. Man. d'Orn. p. 295 (1815).

Lagopus alius, Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xvii. p. 203 (1817).

Tetrao sulalpinus, Nilsson, Orn. Sv. i. p. 307 (1817).

Tetrao (Lagopus) saliceti (Temm.), Swainson, Faun. Bor. Am. ii. p. 351 (1831).

Lagopus sulalpina, Nilsson, Skand. Faun. ii. p. 88 (1835).

Tetrao Irachydactylus, Temm. Man. d'Orn. iv. p. 328 (1840).

Lirype, Norwegian ; Dalripa, Swedish ; Metsdkana, BieJcko, Finnish ; KoropdtJca, Russian.

Figure notaliles.

Edwards, I. c. ; D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 129 ; Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 8 ; Naumann,
Vog. Deutschl. pi. 159; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 255; Elliot, Monogr. Tetr. pis. 17, 18;
Audubon, pi. 299.

d ad. ptil. cest. capite et collo saturate runs, nigro maculatis : dorso et scapularibus runs, nigricante fasciatis
et vermiculatis : alis albis : uropygio cum supracaudalibus dorso concoloribus : gula, gutture, pectore
et hypochondriis runs, vix nigricante guttatis et vermiculatis : abdomine centrali, tibiis et tarsi plumis
albis : subcaudalibus rufis, nigro fasciatis et albido immixtis : supra oculos macula nuda, papillosa
coccinea.

$ ad. ptil. test, mari similis sed minor, collo et pectore sordidioribus et nigro conspicue fasciatis, mento
ochrascenti-flavo.

Adult Male in spring plumage (Finland, May). Head, neck, breast, upper part of flanks, and back ricb dark
red, most uniform and ricb in colour on the fore part of the neck and breast ; feathers on the crown
with black centres, those on the neck, breast, and back more or less vermiculated with black, those on
the back being most closely marked, and many being also narrowly terminated with white ; rump and
upper tail-coverts similar to the back, but intermixed with a few white feathers ; tail (excepting the
two central rectrices, which are white) blackish, tipped with white, excepting on the outer feathers ;
wings and underparts, excepting as above stated, pure white ; shafts of most of the primaries brownish
towards the tip ; feathers covering the nostrils, a small space on the chin at the base of the under
mandible, and region round and behind the eye white, lower part of the chin almost black ; above the

2f2

184

eye a tolerably large warty red comb; bill blackish horn; iris brown. Total length about 15 inches,
culmen O88, from the nostril to the tip of the bill 0-47, wing 8 - l, tail 5-1, tarsus Y7.

Adult Male in summer. Differs from the above in having all the upper parts, except the wings, unmixed
with white, no white feathers in the tail ; the under tail-coverts like the upper tail-coverts, and only
the centre of the abdomen white. A specimen shot in Norrland as late as the 16th September has
still retained the full plumage, and merely has the white area on the underparts rather more extended.

Adult Female in summer. Differs from the male in being smaller in size, and in having the neck and
breast duller in colour, and barred with blackish ; and the chin is yellowish, not blackish red. Culmen
0-88, from the nostril to the tip of the bill - 45, wing 7 - 4, tail 4 - 6, tarsus l - 65.

Winter plumage. Pure white, excepting the tail, which is black, broadly tipped with white ; legs and feet
covered with long hair-like feathers, the growth of which at this season of the year is very close and
long, and the claws are longer than in the summer.

Obs. In the autumn plumage they differ from the summer dress in having more white on the underparts
and in having the red portion of the plumage duller and more worn in appearance. An old female shot
in August is still nearly in full summer dress, but has the underparts whiter than in examples obtained
in June and July. From this dress they gradually pass into the full white winter dress.

The Willow-Grouse has a most extensive range, being found throughout the northern portions
of both the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions. It does not occur in Great Britain, being there
replaced by a closely allied species (Lagopus scoticus) ; but in Scandinavia it is extremely
common. Mr. Collett writes that " it breeds numerously in the birch-region in all the fell-
districts, and in the coast region from Stavanger up to the Russian frontier; but in the low-
lands eastward of Christiania it is entirely wanting." It is probably most abundant on certain
of the flat islands (distinguished by a vigorous birch-growth) lying to the north of the Polar
circle, especially in Lofoten and along the coast of Nordland and Tromso Amts. The islands
best known in this respect are those of Hasselo, in Lofoten, and Carlso, north of Tromso, a very
considerable number of this species being annually killed there, and apparently without affecting
their numbers.

"On the 14th June the males were to be seen on the 'Spil' in all directions among the
bushes of Hasselo. On Tromsoen this bird may be said to be almost domesticated ; it nests in
the gardens of the inhabitants and in the grounds of the neighbouring villas, in no wise disturbed
by the daily avocations going on around. By the 21st July the young birds had attained the
size of a Hazel-hen.

" Otherwise this species is pretty evenly distributed throughout the whole of Finmark, in
every spot where birch or willow growth is to be found. In the extreme north — every vestige
of tree vegetation having vanished — its absence is supplied by L. alpinus (L. mutus). Perhaps
nearly half a million individuals of both species are annually shot and snared in Norway, three
fourths of the number belonging to the present species."

In Sweden, according to Professor Sundevall, " it is found from the extreme north down to
about Silja in Dalecarlia, and in the northern portion of Wermland down to the neighbourhood
of the fells, and somewhat below that ; but it only occurs accidentally in the southern portions

185

of the Swedish lowlands. In the interior of Sweden it is common throughout Lapland proper

O

within the birch-region, and in elevated places in the conifer-region, as at Lycksela, Asele,
Angermanland, &c, and in Dalecarlia and Wermland." In Finland, according to Dr. Palmen
(Finlands Foglar, ii. p. 40), " it is found throughout the country in larger or smaller numbers,
but is altogether wanting on Aland. In the south-western coast districts it is rare, and also
uncommon in the interior. Mr. J. von Wright only once observed it at Uskela. Only a few
are to be met with on the islands off the Nyland coast ; but on the mainland it breeds in the
vicinity of Helsingfors and Borga, but is comparatively rare. In Temmela it is common, as also
in the interior of the country, even on the islands in the lakes. Along the west coast it appears
to be found in but small numbers up to Bjorneborg; and Alcenius states that it occurs in the
vicinity of Gamla-Carleby, and Wasa. In the northern portion of the country it is common in
all suitable localities." To this I may add that I met with it on one or two occasions near
Wyburg in Southern Finland, and saw it frequently on various portions of the coast when
travelling northward in the spring. In Russia it is extremely common in the northern govern-
ments. I saw it near Nijnie Novgorod in the winter, and also near St. Petersburg and Moscow.
Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that it breeds in the Jaroslaf Government, and is numerous in the
Governments of Tver and Wladimir, and has been met with in the breeding-season near Odoeff
in the Government of Tula. He further states that, according to Hoffmann, it is very common
in the northern parts of the Government of Perm, and ranges as far north as 70° N. lat. It is
also common on the black-earth plains in the Shadrinsk and Ekaterinburg districts in the
Central Ural, but is rare on the south-western slopes. According to Eversmann it does not
breed in the Kazan Government ; and Aksakoff says that it does not occur in the Government
of Ufim during the summer season. Pallas is wrong, Mr. Sabanaeff says, in stating that it is
only found during winter in the Government of Chelibiansk. In the Baltic provinces it appears
to be tolerably common ; and Meyer (Vog. Liv. p. 158) states that it is very numerous in Livonia,
in Esthonia, and Courland, is found in Prussia in the neighbourhood of Tilsit, and even occa-
sionally straggles into Pomerania. Curiously enough, in "Western Scandinavia it scarcely ever
appears to range down to the shores of the Baltic.

To the eastward the Willow-Grouse is found throughout Siberia to Kamtschatka. Dr. von
Schrenck says it was the only species of Ptarmigan he met with in the Amoor country, and that
it was numerous, especially during the winter season. In the winter he saw large flocks in the
northern parts of Saghalien and on the Lower Amoor river as far as Kidsi. Above that place it
becomes rarer, but is said to occur at Gorin and Chongar, and is known by name, at least to the
natives of Dawunda, above the Geong Mountains. Dr. G. Radde did not meet with it either on
the Central Amoor or in the districts skirting Lake Baikal; but in the Eastern Sajan he found it
at an altitude of from 5000 to 6000 feet above the sea-level, where it breeds in the valleys over-
grown with small birch trees. Von Middendorff writes that it ranges in the Taimyr country up
to 72-|° N. lat., or to the Nowaja river, where he met with a single specimen. At Chatangskij
Pogost, in 72° N. lat., it was commoner than L. mutus. In these northern latitudes all the
Ptarmigans are wanting during the winter, as they migrate southwards, returning northwards
again in April or May. In South-eastern Siberia Von Middendorff first met with it on the
Lena, in 58° N. lat. ; but on the more lofty portions of the Stanowoj Mountains he lost sight of

it, and found it again on the elevated portions of the large Schantar Island. On the Tugur river
it was numerous.

In the Nearctic region it is found throughout Arctic North America and in Newfoundland,
but rarely occurs within the limits of the United States territory. Audubon states that he had
the skins of Willow-Grouse which had been shot near Lake Michigan ; but there do not appear
to be any specimens preserved which have been obtained in the United States. Sir John
Richardson (Faun. Bor.-Am. p. 351) says that it " inhabits the fur-countries from the fiftieth to
the seventieth parallel of latitude, within which limits it is partially migratory — breeding in the
valleys of the Rocky Mountains, the barren grounds, and Arctic coasts, collecting in flocks on
the approach of winter, and returning southward as the severity of the weather increases — con-
siderable bodies, however, remaining in the woody tracts as far north as latitude 67°, even in the
coldest winters." On the west side of the continent Messrs. Dall and Bannister obtained it at
Sitka ; and Bischoff got one at Kadiak. Mr. Dall writes that it is abundant from Fort Yukon
to the sea; and Mr. Bannister says that it is " common on the island and the adjoining mainland
during the greater part of the year, but especially abundant in the spring." The former
gentleman writes as follows : — " As soon as the ground is well covered with snow, these birds
appear on the river, where they may generally be found in coveys, among the willow thickets.
They are moderately shy, and on alarm fly immediately, but without much noise.

" They make regular paths along the banks, among the willows, on which they always run ;
and the Indians set a small barrier of brush on each side of this path and a snare directly across
it, and catch them by hundreds in this manner, though the vigilant Ravens and Foxes are ever
on the watch to devour the bird as soon as snared. They are abundant in the fall and mid-
winter. In February they gather in immense flocks, and go nobody knows where. About the
middle of March they return as suddenly, and remain a few weeks, when they go altogether to
the mountains or open country, where they pair and breed. These facts have been known to
me from observations for two years ; and the Russians and Indians bear witness that it is so every
year. In 1867 they left about February 15th, and came back about April 1st, leaving for the
mountains about May 3rd. In 1868 they left about February 10th, and came back March 21st,
leaving for the mountains April 28th, going and coming in great flocks, like a snow squall."
Captain Blakiston writes (Ibis, 1863, p. 127) that it ranges across the interior of North America
" from Hudson's Bay to near the Rocky Mountains. I obtained a chance bird (Ibis, vol. iv. p. 8)
near Fort Carlton ; but it is not every winter that they migrate so far south on the Upper Saskat-
chewan. Nearer Lake Winipeg, at Fort Cumberland and to the eastward, they are common
every winter ; and numbers of specimens are received from the shores of Hudson's Bay, where
it is in considerable request as an article of food in winter. Mr. Ross mentions this species as
common on the Mackenzie."

In its habits the Willow-Grouse closely assimilates to our common Scotch Red Grouse, to
which species it is so closely allied that some naturalists look on these two birds as merely forms
or races of the same species ; but this view of the case is one I cannot in the least indorse. I
have often seen and shot the present species in Northern Sweden and Finland; and when
travelling up the coast in the latter country in the early spring, just as the snow was thawing
and the roads becoming impassable with a sledge, I often scared up Willow-Grouse by the road-

187

side, and shot several at different times out of my carriage. They had then partly assumed the
summer plumage ; and one, an old male, shot early in May, was already in almost full summer
dress. In the flat country near Uleaborg, in large tracts covered with low bushes, and scattered
through with tolerably large birch trees and conifer-growth, I found the Willow-Grouse
numerous, and had ample opportunities of observing its habits during the breeding-season. I
always observed them singly or in pairs ; and in the early spring I have often, when sleeping out
in the open air, enticed the males almost to our camp-fire by imitating their call-note. They
begin to move about very early in the morning ; and one of the first sounds heard is the peculiar
back, back, brrr, brrr of the Willow-Grouse. At this season of the year the males are par-
ticularly pugnacious ; and though monogamous, it is affirmed by many careful observers that they
hold a sort of lelc like the Blackgame and Capercaillie, and engage in desperate combats for the
possession of the females. I have personally never seen any thing of this description ; but there
is no doubt that the males often fight and may at any time be heard challenging and flying
towards each other. When the male flies off, it utters a cackling note, resembling that of our
common Grouse ; and when strutting to and fro with outstretched neck and expanded tail, dis-
playing his plumage for the benefit of the female, he utters a clear note, like kavao, kavao, which
the female answers with a low, rather subdued, mewing note, neeau, neeau. About the latter
end of May the female has deposited her eggs, which are placed in a very simple nest, consisting
merely of a hole scratched under a bush, and but slightly lined with bits of grass-straws or fine
twigs of the dwarf birch, or of the small berry-growing bushes so common in the high north.
In number the eggs vary from seven or eight to fourteen or fifteen, -and even more ; but I have
never found a nest with more than twelve. Compared with the eggs of our Scotch Grouse, I
can find no appreciable difference ; and if mixed up together, I believe that it is quite impossible
to separate them. The young are able to take care of themselves almost as soon as they emerge
from the shell, and when suddenly surprised hide with great celerity. They are most carefully
tended by both parents ; and when I have suddenly come upon a pair with their young I have
been greatly interested in observing the extreme solicitude with which both the male and the
female have tried to divert my attention and lure me from the place, at the same time exhibiting
a disregard of danger concerning themselves which at other times they were far from showing.
I once came so silently and suddenly on a family, that I succeeded in pouncing on and securing
a couple of young ones, which I put into my shooting-coat pocket, intending to convert them
into specimens ; but the poor mother exhibited such extreme distress that I had not the heart to
deprive her of them, and let them go again, thus deferring the opportunity of getting the young
in down till a more convenient occasion, which, I may add, did not again present itself; and I
have since somewhat blamed myself for being so soft-hearted. The young birds grow quickly ;
and I have seen them full-grown early in August. At that season of the year they are in
families, each pair escorting their brood ; but later in the season they pack in flocks of con-
siderable magnitude, and I have heard reliable sportsmen declare that they often number as
many as a thousand in one pack ; but I have never seen a pack of any great size. After a slight
fall of snow, when the footprints are clearly visible, I have frequently tracked them, and either
shot them on the ground or as they took wing ; but, as a rule, I have found them rather wild
and difficult to approach within range.

188

6

In the northern portions of Scandinavia vast numbers of the Willow-Grouse and Ptarmigan
are snared and, after being frozen, are sent down to the larger towns by sledge-loads. To show
what numbers are thus transmitted, I may name that when travelling from Stockholm to Lulea
I frequently met several sledge-loads together on the high road ; and one day I counted no less
than thirty sledges, each of which would contain about a couple of thousand birds. Unlike our
Scotch Grouse the Willow-Grouse frequently perches on trees ; and during severe weather I have
not unfrequently seen them on the birch trees feeding on the buds, and have been assured that
the male often perches on the top of a tree during the pairing-season. The present species
passes the night on the ground, during the winter often seeking shelter and warmth in a snow-
drift ; but they appear seldom to be deeply embedded in it, being easily flushed. During the
winter it feeds on tender shoots of the dwarf birch, common birch, and willow, and in the
autumn on berries of various sorts which flourish so abundantly on the low grounds of Northern
Europe, such as the blueberry, cranberry, crowberry, cloudberry, and that most delicious of

O

northern berries when preserved, the so-called " Akerbar" (Ricbus arcticus, a sort of raspberry),
which creeps over the ground in the high north. In the summer it lives on the seeds of various
wild grasses and the leaves and tender shoots of various bushes and plants.

Mr. Barth, a well-known and most reliable Norwegian sportsman, has published (J. f. O.
1869, pp. 87-92) some excellent notes on the Willow-Grouse, from which I extract a few par-
ticulars, as follow : — The present species is, he says, found only where the birch tree is abundant ;
and plains where only the dwarf birch and willow are found are not suitable to it, as it
cannot live in localities where the cover is poor, but requires birch-thickets ; thus it is rare or
common, according as the birch-growth is distributed. Where larger birch-woods and birch-
thickets are found alternately and juniper bushes are scattered here and there, are its favourite
haunts ; for here it finds good cover during the seasons when it is changing its plumage. The
female deposits from eight to eighteen and even twenty eggs, early or late, according to the
elevation inhabited by the bird. Mr. Barth found newly hatched young in July, and eggs as late
as the middle of August. The young birds can fly when eight days old, at which age they are
about as large as a Lark. The parent bird tends them with the greatest care, and when sur-
prised with them will not desert them, but may often be approached near enough to be knocked
down with a stick. When about four weeks old the young are as large as a Plover, and are then
considered old enough to shoot. They lie very close, and scatter after being flushed, and are thus
easily procured with the aid of a good dog. In August they grow very quickly, and by the end
of the month they are full-grown. It appears that when small they not unfrequently lose their
parents, but are then taken care of by others ; and not seldom as many as thirty individuals of
various ages are found in one covey. Until late in September the coveys remain in the localities
where they have bred, and can be approached ; but later than that they pack and resort to the
mountains, and gradually get into the regions where the tree-growth ceases. They are then
unapproachable, and a quick shot only can get an odd bird out of a pack of about five hundred.
Mr. Barth speaks of a pack of about three thousand individuals which he saw between the 3rd
and 10th of November. Curiously enough they are sometimes much less shy than at others ; and
Mr. Barth cannot account for this, except that the weather may to some extent be the cause. He
remarks that during the winter they not unfrequently feed at night, and from the middle of

485

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189

March to the middle of April they are to be found in the morning and afternoon in the tops of
the birches feeding on the buds. About the middle of March they pair and commence to drum
when in packs of several hundred individuals, but soon scatter to their respective breeding-haunts,
where they live in pairs. The males, however, are more numerous than the females, those which
remain unmated ranging about in flocks ; and Mr. Barth met with one of about forty individuals
on a small island, and shot fifteen out of them, it being considered quite correct to shoot these
even during the breeding-season.

Several ornithologists have instituted researches as to the cause of the claws of the present
species being worn or cast, and as to the time when they are cast and the new ones produced.
After having carefully read the various articles on this subject I feel that I cannot do better
than give a translation of some notes published by Professor A. J. "Malmgren (Sallsk. pro Fauna
et Flora fennica, not. vi. pp. 89-94: Helsingfors, 1861). This gentleman carefully collected a
large series of feet of the Willow-Grouse, at all seasons of the year, keeping particulars as to
age, sex, &c. ; and from a critical examination of nearly two hundred pairs of feet collected in
the same locality, in the district of Kajana, Finland, he arrives at the following conclusions: —
From the end of October to April the winter claws remain unchanged ; they are even, broad,
scooped out in shape, somewhat bent, very strong and thick on the ridge, and on the middle toe
measure up to and above 20 millimetres in length. In April and early in May the tip and sides
are often found to be broken, owing probably to the hard-frozen surface of the snow at that
season ; but so soon as the ground becomes bare of snow, say about the middle of May, they get
even edges again and retain the same length, form, and appearance as during the winter up to
the end of June or the first days in July. Then, however, a sudden change takes place, as they
become quite short, without any intermediate stage between the 19-millimetre-long claws worn
in June to the July claws of only 10 millimetres length. To a practised eye, moreover, it is
apparent that these latter claws are new ; and they immediately commence to grow, so that late
in July they are visibly longer. In August and September they continue to grow quickly, and
in October have obtained the full length of the winter claws. The thick, hairy feathering of
the toes is cast late in May or early in June, and during the remainder of the latter month and
throughout July only the inner portions of the toes are covered with hair-like feathers. Early
in August the new feather-growth commences to appear, and gradually thickens till, by the end
of October, it is as dense as in midwinter. Professor Malmgren further shows that the shortness
of the summer claws cannot arise from continued wearing away by scratching, as was supposed
by Professor Bonsdorff to be the case, as the winter claws remain unaltered during the months
of May and June, when the ground is bare, and then in July the bird is found suddenly with
short claws, though the ground is bare, there being no gradual change ; and these short claws
gradually develop and attain their full length and appearance as in midwinter, whilst the ground
is bare. In the paper above quoted, Professor Malmgren gives a careful description of the claws
at various seasons of the year, but could not have them figured, though he had prepared some
careful sketches. These he has placed at my disposal, and an extra uncoloured Plate will be
given of them, as they show more clearly the various stages of the growth of the claws than any
description that could be written.

Professor Baird remarks on the difference in size of the bills of individuals from various

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8

localities, and appears to consider that more than one species may be distinguished by this
character. Mr. Elliot, in his Monograph of the Tetraonidae, however, clearly demonstrates that
the size of the bill is merely an individual variation, and founds his opinion on numerous
specimens from Great Slave Lake, Mackenzie River, Fort George, Lapland, Sweden, and New-
foundland, stating that the size of the bill ranges all the way from the robust and powerful to
almost as small and delicate as that which characterizes Lagopus mutus. I may add that the
series I have examined fully bears out the view of the case taken by Mr. Elliot.
The specimens figured are those described, and are in my collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, <3 . Raumo, Finland, May (H. E. D.). b, 6 ad. Norrland, September 16th, 1871 (Meves). c, <3 juv.
Norrland, September 26th, 1871 {Meves). d, ? ad. Norrland, August 12th, 1871. e, d ad. Christiania,
Norway, December 1870 (Collett). f, d ad. Siberia, winter plumage (Dode).

E Mus. A. Newton.

a, j. Muonio-vaara, West Bothnia, May 1857. b, <S . Mukka-uoma, June 3rd, 1857. c,d,e,f. Muo-
nioniska, October 1856. g, h. Newfoundland, winter plumage (Reeks). i. Newfoundland, spring
plumage (Ree ks) . k. Moose Factory. I. York Factory, Hudson's Bay Territory, m. Alaska (Whymper).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram,
a, b, <3 , c, 2 • Kjterringoe, Norway, July 1852. d. Norway, March.

191

Genus BONASA.

Tetrao apud Linnseus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 275 (1766).

Bonasa, Stephens in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xi. pt. 2, p. 298 (1819).

Bonasia apud Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 179 (1829).

The Hazel-Grouse inhabit the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions, one species being resident in the
Western Palsearctic Eegion.

They frequent wooded localities, especially where conifers intermixed with non-evergreen
trees abound. They walk with ease, and appear to spend a good deal of their time on the ground
searching after food ; but when flushed they at once fly into a tree and trust to concealment
amongst the foliage. They are usually found singly or in pairs in the spring and early summer ;
and when the young are able to accompany their parents they range about in family coveys.
They are somewhat peculiar in their partiality for one locality, and seldom range far. Their
flight is noisy and tolerably strong ; but they seldom fly far, usually only for a distance of from
fifty to a hundred yards. Their call-note is a peculiar whistle, uttered when they are separated
and call to each other. They feed on buds, seeds, berries, and insects of various kinds. They
are monogamous, and appear to be much attached to their mates. Their nest is a mere hole
scratched in the ground, usually under cover of a bush, and scantily lined with grass ; and their
eggs, which are numerous, are pale yellowish with a rufous tinge, sparingly spotted with rufous.

Stephens (I. c), who founded this genus, included in it only two American species — one of
which, Bonasa umbellus, is congeneric with our Hazel-Grouse, whereas the second, the Pinnated
Grouse, has been subsequently, and with good reason, separated generically, and now stands as
Cupiclonia ciqndo. Kaup (I. c), who only treated of the genera of European birds, included only
the Hazel-Grouse in this genus, making it the type.

Bonasa umbellus must undoubtedly be considered to be the type of the genus ; but as this
species does not occur in the Western Palsearctic Region, 1 give the characters of our bird,
Bonasa betulina, as follows, viz : — beak moderate, stout, decurved towards the tip ; nostrils basal,
lateral, concealed by short feathers, which cover the nasal membrane and extend nearly to the
middle of the bill ; feathers on the crown elongated, forming a crest ; a small, narrow bare
place above the eye ; wings rather short and broad, the first quill shorter than the secondaries,
the second shorter than the sixth, the next three nearly equal and longest ; tail moderately long,
broad, slightly rounded ; tarsus scutellate, on the upper half feathered ; toes bare, scutellate,
pectinated on the sides ; claws moderately long, obtuse, slightly curved.

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191

i?

BONASA BETULINA.

(HAZEL-GROUSE.)

Tetrao honasia, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 275 (1766).

Tetrao betulinus, Scop. Ann. i. Hist. Nat. no. 172 (1769).

La Gelinotte, Buff. PL Enl. ii. pi. 474, 475.

Tetrao canus, Sparrm. Mus. Carls, i. pi. xvi. (1786).

Bonasia rupestris, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 513 (1831).

Bonasia sylvestris, id. torn. cit. p. 514 (1831).

Bonasia europcea, Gould, B. of Eur. iv. pi. 251 (1837).

Bonasia sylvestris, Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Am. p. 43 (1838).

Tetrastes bonasia, Keys. & Bias. Wirb. Eur. p. 200 (1840).

Bonasa sylvestris, Gray, List Gen. of B. p. 80 (1841).

Bonasia lag opus, Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 287.

Bonasia minor, id. torn. cit. p. 287.

Bonasia albogularis, id. torn. cit. p. 287.

Bonasia betulina, Bonap. Cat. Parzud. p. 13 (1856).

Bonasa betulina, Gray, Hand-1. of B. ii. p. 277 (1870).

Gelinotte, French ; Francolino di monte, Italian ; Raselhuhn, German ; Hjerpe, Swedish and
Norwegian ; BiabcJiik, Russian.

Figures notabiles.

Buff. PI. Enl. pi. 474, 475 ; Naum. Vog. Deutschl. vi. Taf. 158 ; Gould, B. Eur. pi. 251 ;
Bree, B. of Eur. iii. p. 203; Elliot, Monogr. Tetraon. pi. 4; Sundev. Sv. Fogl. pi. xxxiii.
figs. 4, 5 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. tab. 31. figs. 1, 2 ; Lloyd's Game B. Sweden & Norway, p. 112.

8 ad. cristatus : supra clare cineraceus, phimis nigricante transfasciatis : pileo magis brunnescente, vix
ferrugineo tincto, plumis ad basin nigricantibus et nigro irregulariter transfasciatis : macula post-
oculari, loris et genis albis, paullulum nigro mixtis, his fasciam latam undique per latera colli
deductam formantibus : fascia mystacali gulaque tota nigerrimis : scapularibus ferrugineis nigro
transfasciatis et vermiculatis, vix cineraceo tinctis sed fulvido anguste marginatis, plumis extimis
albo late terminatis fasciam distinctam exhibentibus : dorso postico et uropygio purius cineraceis,
minus nigricante variis, plumis omnibus obscure fulvido marginatis : tectricibus alarum cinerascenti-
brunneis, minimis fulvo bmbatis et maculatis, majoribus conspicue albo terminatis : remigibus
brunneis, extiis fulvo irregulariter marginatis, primariis extimis rufescente fasciatim variis, secundariis
cinerascentibus, fulvo marginatis, ferrugineo tinctis, extiis versus apicem nigricantibus et ubique nigro
variegatis : cauda cinerascenti-brnnnea, nigro irregulariter vermiculata, rectricibus duabus centralibus
fulvo transfasciatis, reliquis versus apicem nigris fasciam nigram latam formantibus, albido terminatis :
subtiis albicans, plumarum parte basab nigricanti-brunnea, : pectore paullo rufescente tincto : hypo-
chondriis laste ferrugineis, fascia, anteapicali nigra, et apice alba notatis : subalaribus cinerascenti-

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194

brunneis, albo maculatis et lineatis : rostro nigricanti-corneo : pedibus grisescenti-brunneis : iride
brunnea, area supraoculari coccinea.

2 ad. mari similis, sed rufescentior : supra vix cinerascens, et gula albida, et area supraoculari plumosa, semper
distinguenda.

6 juv. similis feminse adultse, sed supra obscure fulvo transfasciatus, scapularibus nigricantibus : subtus
fulvescenti-albus, pectore summo rufescente : gula, albicante, brunneo mixta.

Adult Male. Above ashy grey, all the feathers of the upper part of the neck and iuterscapulary region
transversely barred with blackish ; the head crested, the feathers slightly tinged with rufous, the bases
of the long crest-feathers showing rather plainly, which gives them a blacker appearance ; a line of
feathers behind the eye, extending above the ear-coverts, white ; lores white, varied with black just
above the nostril ; a spot underneath the eye white ; cheeks white, slightly varied with blackish,
extending backwards and running down the sides of the neck, and forming a white band as far as the
scapulars; moustachial region and entire throat jet-black; scapulars rusty red, varied with black,
which takes the form both of broad bands and minute vermiculations, some of the feathers mesially
streaked with cream-colour, and most of them narrowly edged with fulvous, the outer feathers tipped
on the outer web with a broad spot of white, which forms a very distinct band running the whole
length of the scapulars ; lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts clearer ashy grey, less
varied with black, which only appears here and there in the form of an occasional narrow transverse
bar, a mesial streak, or a few obscure rnottlings and vermiculations, all the feathers obscurely edged
with very pale buff ; wing-coverts ashy brown, all of them more or less broadly margined with fulvous
or white, the least ones spotted and irregularly barred with fulvous, the median and greater coverts
very distinctly spotted with white ; quills brown, the primaries distinctly margined with fulvous along
the outer web, and slightly freckled with brown, the two outermost quills rufescent on the outer web,
alternately barred with brown, which gives it the appearance of a chess-board, the secondaries more
washed with ashy grey, tinged with rust-colour, and transversely barred with pale fulvous, all the
feathers more or less freckled with black, and the innermost or dorsal secondaries broadly edged with
black along the outer web, and with fulvous at the tip and on the inner web of the feathers ; tail-
feathers ashy grey at the base, very plainly freckled with black, the two middle feathers similarly
marked, but slightly tinged with rusty brown, and transversely crossed with irregular fulvous bars, all
the other feathers having a broad bar of black across the apical half of the feather, and tipped with
greyish white ; under surface of the body white, somewhat mottled with brown where the bases of the
feathers show through; the breast slightly tinged with rusty red, but the long flank-feathers very
distinctly marked with this colour, especially on the higher part of the flanks ; under wing-coverts
ashy brown, varied with spots and lines of white ; bill blackish horn-colour ; feet reddish brown, with
a shade of grey; iris nut-brown; eyelid rich red. Total length 12'5 inches, oilmen 08, wing 6 - 3,
tail 4" 7, tarsus l - 25.

Obs. The above description is taken from a fine adult male in our own collection, killed in Norway in
January 1869. Another male, in Canon Tristram's collection, procured from Christiania in July,
shows that there is little or no change in the summer and winter plumage of this Grouse. In this
specimen the grey of the upper surface is a little purer, and there is a slight tinge of rufous on the
crown, ear-coverts, and sides of the neck. Total length 12 inches, culmen 0"8, wing 6*4, tail 4 - 7,
tarsus 1-25. Another specimen from Moscow, in Mr. J. H. Gurney's collection, obtained by him there
on the 11th of September 1869, has a decided fulvous tinge on the under surface, and the upper parts
not such a pure ash-colour; the tips of the tail-feathers are also entirely ashy, freckled with black.

195

Total length 13 inches, culmen 0"8, wing 6*1, tail 5, tarsus 1*25. This bird has not got the feathering
of the legs so extended as in the foregoing examples, which are probably older birds. Canon Tristram
has also lent us two males from his collection, obtained in Sweden by the late Mr. Wheelwright ; and
in 'both of them we notice a peculiarity which is not so fully developed in any of the three male
birds examined by us. This is the junction of the cheek-stripe below the black throat, thus forming
a conspicuous jugular patch of white, while the line of white on the sides of the neck is not continuous
from the cheek-stripe, but is separated from the latter by the brown feathers of the neck. Altogether
these last-named specimens are more decidedly tinged with rusty than any we have yet seen ; and the
development of the white gular patch forms a conspicuous feature. Total length 12-12 - 7 inches,
culmen 08, wing 6"6-6'8, tail 5, tarsus L25.

Adult Female. A little smaller and in general appearance more rufous than the male, especially on the
head, hinder neck, and chest ; the grey of the lower back also less pure, all the feathers more or less
tinged with rust-colour, a perceptible shade of which likewise pervades the centre tail-feathers. All the
characteristic white spots and bands are less strongly developed, and are tinged with clear fulvous ; the
bands on the head and cheeks are particularly obscure, and the spots on the wing-coverts and outer
scapulars not nearly so plain as in the male, the band down the sides of the neck being the only one
which approaches to pure white. The ear-coverts are very distinctly rufous. Besides all these minor
differences, however, there are certain trenchant characters by which the adult female may always be
distinguished from the old male, viz. the absence of the black throat, which is fulvous white, slightly
varied with blackish spots, and the feathered eyebrow. Total length 12 inches, culmen - 8, wing 6*4,
tail 4 - 7, tarsus l - 2. Females do not seem to vary so much inter se as do the males.

Young Male. In general colour like the old female, but much clearer grey on the lower part of the back and
rump ; the hinder neck more distinctly barred with fulvous, and the spots and streaks on the scapulars
and wing-coverts distinctly of the latter colour. The head is clear brown, slightly mottled with blackish,
and perceptibly crested, even in the very young stage. The throat is very pale fulvous, mottled with
dusky ; and the whole under surface is shaded with fulvous ; the feet are pale yellowish ; and the tarsus
is very little feathered; the beak is horn-brown, with a great deal of yellow on the lower mandible.

Obs. The young bird certainly gains its full plumage within the year in which it is hatched ; for the little
chick we have noticed above, and figured in the Plate, has already begun to moult, and in the midst of
the fulvous feathers of the breast some white-edged ones are appearing. We have received from our
good friend Mr. Meves a full-grown young bird, killed on the 3rd of August, 1871, which is fast gaining
the adult dress, but retains the marks of immaturity about the head and neck in the shape of fulvous
spots on the feathers, which give these parts a mottled appearance : the upper surface of the body is
very dark, and much varied with black, especially on the scapulars ; and the black centres to the feathers
show conspicuously on the under surface ; the bill is blackish, with scarcely so much yellow on the
lower mandible as in the before-mentioned chick.

Specimens of Hazel-Grouse from various localities certainly differ somewhat. We have not been able to
examine a series complete enough to enable us to state accurately these variations from our own personal
observation. Wheelwright, in his ' Spring and Summer in Lapland/ observed that in those that he shot at
Quickjock, in Lapland, the plumage was lighter and prettier than in the Wermland Hazel-Grouse. Lord
Lilford has lent us a specimen from Styria which is very much more rufous than any of the Scandinavian
examples which have come under our notice. In ' Naumannia ' for 1855 {I.e.), Brehm has named several
subspecies; and, again, in the 'Journal fur Ornithologie' for 1860 (p. 393) he gives the following particulars.
" The European Hazel-Grouse," he says, " are easily divided into several subspecies. In the northern birds

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196

the upper parts are generally grey, in others rusty grey, and again in others greyish rust-red. Those from
Pomerania are the smallest; those from Karnthen are like those from Trieste. The bird from Northern Asia
(which Tilesius brought from Kamsehatka) is a different species, both male and female lacking the black chin
and throat, having this part white, and has been named by me Bonasia albigularis ." Mr. D. G. Elliot, in his
great work on the Grouse, has not referred to these subspecies of Brehm ; and it is impossible for us, with our
own limited material, to say how far these subspecies are well founded. We certainly believe, however, that the
supposed species with the white throat will not be found to exist ; probably a young male, or a mistake as to
sex, has caused the author to believe in the possibility of such a contingency. On the other hand Radde,
writing about his Siberian birds, says : — " I have before me old males from the Apfelgebirge, which, like all
winter-killed birds from Siberia, have the back grey. Examples with rust-brown in the plumage, especially on
the wings, are not wanting in Eastern Siberia ; and Dr.Wulffius lately sent one, procured on the 10th October,
1860, at Port May." Then, again, Captain Blakiston writes about the bird in Japan :• — " I brought home a
single young male specimen, which Dr. Sclater considers to be of this species, and which Mr. Maximovitch,
who had killed them, pronounced to be identical with those of the Amoor. The length was 16J, and wing

6| inches. Eye hazel-brown, bill dark horn-colour, feet leaden flesh, over the eye orange-red Four

fine specimens, of which the males had black throats, were shot on another occasion in the thick woods about
twenty-five miles north of Hakodadi." Dr. Taczanowski informs us that specimens from Southern Russia
and Siberia are much brighter in colour than those of Central Europe ; but as he does not notice any further
peculiarities, and as Captain Blakiston distinctly mentions the black throats, we can hardly believe in the
possibility of a distinct species being found in Kamsehatka.

Varieties. There can, we think, be no doubt that the bird figured by Sparrman in the 'Museum
Carlsonianum/ and named by him Tetrao canus, is only a white variety of the Hazel-Grouse; indeed the
characteristic crest and unfeathered toes clearly refer to this species. Such varieties are sometimes seen ; and
Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., procured one during his visit to Russia, and on his return to England gave it to
Mr. F. Bond, in whose collection it still remains. Mr. Lloyd also remarks : — " Accidental varieties are occa-
sionally met with. Nilsson speaks of an individual of a faded colour, in which the portion of the plumage that
is usually black was brown ; and Mr. Wilhelm von Wright of others as being " almost white, though more
commonly greyish white, with faint approximation to the usual colour ; " such a one, he tells us, he himself
shot when residing in Finland, on the 12th September, 1824.'"

In Great Britain the present species does not occur ; and it is most plentiful in the northern part
of the European continent, whence it extends right across Siberia to Japan and Northern China.
It is also found in Russia, Poland, and in certain parts of Germany, being met with in the Alps,
Pyrenees, and in suitable localities in the countries bordering the Rhine.

In Norway, according to Collett, it is found in all conifer woods, from Smaalehnene up to
Nordland, where Boie found it at Foldereid, 65° N. lat. In the west it is rare at Christiansand,
and does not occur in Bergen Stift, unless in the parts nearest the fells. In the small dales, at a
considerable altitude, it occurs sparingly, but is no longer found on the fells in the subalpine
region. Mr. Collett further states that near Christiania it is as common as the Capercailzie,
affecting localities where the conifer growth is intermixed with non-evergreen trees, especially
birches, and the woods are full of hillocks. It frequents the ground less than the Capercailzie
and Black Grouse. Nilsson says that it is not found in Southern Sweden ; near Rimforssa and

o

Kisa, in Linkopings Lan, it is not rare, but more so at Sathalla, and near Bokara, and Arhult,
in Calmar Lan. It is found near Uddevalla and in Bohuslan, is tolerably abundant in Oster-
gothland, rare near Stockholm, but abundant in the north of Sweden. In Lapland Lowenhjelm

197

found coveys near Quickjock; and, according to Von Wright, this bird extends its range in
Lapland to Kengis, and sometimes to Muonioniska. In Finland it is not rare, and, according to
Meyer, is common and resident in the Baltic provinces. It has not been as yet included among
the birds of Denmark ; but Kjserbolling believes that it is an inhabitant of Holstein, which was
formerly a province of that kingdom : this is stated by Mr. Lloyd in his ' Game-Birds of Sweden
and Norway' (p. 113).

Naumann says that it is common in some parts of Prussia, Poland, and Hungary, but in
Austria, Bohemia, and Silesia it is rare. In Bavaria, in the Odenwald, in Thuringia, and
the Harz it occurs occasionally. In Germany it is resident, but in the autumn travels from
one place to another, occasionally travelling some distance. They generally wander in
families, sometimes in large flocks, which, however, do not keep" close together. Towards the
spring they return to their old haunts and separate into pairs. In the more recent work by
Herr Borggreve, on the distribution of birds in Germany, the present species is recorded as
resident, having about the same range as Tetrao urogallus, but more numerous where the latter
is rare or wanting, on the mountains on the left side of the Rhine ; whereas in the mountains of
the Weser, where the Capercailzie is comparatively numerous, the Hazel-Grouse is almost killed
out. Schlegel states that in Holland it has been seen at Groningen and near Nymegen, and De
Selys-Longchamps observes that in Belgium it is rarer than the Blackcock in the same localities.
It inhabits the wild forests of the Ardennes, near the Prussian frontier ; near Malmedi it is
commoner. In autumn it sometimes straggles as far as Liege, following along the woods on the
banks of the Ourthe.

Our friend Mr. Carl Sachse, of Coblentz, tells us that in that neighbourhood " it is found in
tolerable numbers in the hill-country where underbrush is to be seen, and always near ravines
which contain springs ; and when the pairs frequenting such a locality are killed they are soon
replaced by others. With us they breed in April ; but I have received eggs in June, the first
sitting having probably been destroyed : the bird can easily be taken on the nest. In the
middle of September, when the cold sets in, they wander, and are found in localities where they
are not met with at other seasons, and which are not suitable to their habits. At this season they
are stupid and easy to catch. Three were killed in the garden of an hotel here ; and another flew
through an open window and broke its neck against an arm-chair ; it could scarcely have been
scared by a Hawk, as none was visible at the time.

Kroener notices the Hazel-Grouse as occurring in the Vosges Mountains ; and, in addition to
this locality, MM. Jaubert and Barthelemy record it as an inhabitant of the Pyrenees and Alps.
Bailly, in his excellent work on the ornithology of Savoy, remarks as follows : — " The Gelinotte
inhabits more especially the alpine forests of Switzerland and Germany, the wooded mountains
of the Pyrenees, the Vosges, Dauphine, and the Basses- Alpes. In Savoy it is found throughout
the year, more particularly in the mountainous parts of la Tarantaise, Haute-Savoie, and
Faucigny ; near Chambery it is rare, but is rather more numerous in the forests of Bauges and in
the woods of the neighbouring mountains of Chautagne, Bumilly, and Annecy."

Seidensacher says it is by no means rare in the mountain-forests near Cilli, in Styria,
breeding in April, and laying from six to nine eggs. Count C. Wodzicki writes respecting its occur-
rence in the Carpathian Mountains of Galicia as follows: — "In the beech-woods, especially in

198

6

the low growth, the Hazel-Grouse are numerous, and range up to an altitude of 3000 feet. The
stupidity of this bird, and the open situation of its nest, prevent it from increasing largely,
although here but few are killed by human agency. I have often seen how greedy and phleg-
matic they are. In the winter they stuff their crops so full of birch- and hazel-buds that they
can scarcely move, and become then an easy prey to birds of prey, Foxes, and Martens ; often
scarcely one tenth of their number survive the winter. I once wanted to try if it were possible
to increase them by preserving, and gave orders that in one district none should be shot for seven
years ; but still their numbers were not larger. Everywhere they appear to be found but singly."
Dr. L. Taczanowski informs us that the Hazel-Grouse is still found in all the forests of Poland,
but by degrees is growing rarer. It is resident, but in autumn makes short journeys from forest
to forest, and is then occasionally met with in the bushes in fields and in orchards. During his
journey through Southern Siberia, "Radde states that on the 3rd of July, 1859, he found fledged
young in the eastern Sajan mountains. Middendorff says that is " common everywhere in Siberia.
On the lower Jenesei I saw the last, below the polar circle, at Goroschinskoje; and a little to the
north of this, at Ustj-Kurejskoje, they are said to decrease greatly in numbers, and do not extend
higher than about 69° N. lat. In South-eastern Siberia they occurred everywhere abundantly,
both on the Stanowoj mountains, on the south coast of the Sea of Ochotsk, and everywhere in
Mantschuria." Dr. von Schrenck writes as follows : — " As far as my experience goes, the Hazel-
Grouse is the commonest and most numerous of the game-birds from the south coast of the Sea
of Ochotsk to the Bay of Hadshi, on the island of Sanghalien, and from the mouth of the Amoor
to its Daurian branches, and is found everywhere, and at all seasons of the year. Although there
is scarcely a place where it is wanting, still in the north it frequents especially the groves on the
river-sides, of birch, aspen, poplar, alder, and willow, and in the south the precipices covered
with thin woods and dense underbrush, as also the rocky shores of the river." Dr. von Schrenck
remarks on its great tameness, and says that he has several times shot a couple out of a covey
sitting on a tree without the rest taking flight. He found a nest, containing eggs, on the 4th
(16th) of June, near Lake Kidsi. Swinhoe includes it in his recent list of the birds of China
on the authority of Pere David, who has met with the species in Northern Chelee. Captain
Blakiston obtained it in Japan, and writes : — " This is, I believe, the first instance of this bird
being found in Japan; probably it does not inhabit the more southern part of the empire."
Mr. H. Whitely also remarks : — " I obtained three specimens (an adult male and female, and a
young male) of this bird from native bird-catchers. It is found in the large forests in the neigh-
bourhood of Hakodadi."

The Hazel-Grouse is a true forest-bird, but frequents especially the non-evergreen woods
where birch and aspens abound, and where plenty of blueberries or other berries are to be
procured. Throughout the daytime it is continually wandering about on the ground, and will
traverse considerable distances. The latter part of August is the best time to shoot the Hazel-
Grouse ; and Dresser, during his stay in Finland, had many excellent days' sport after these
birds. The best mode of procuring them is not by hunting them with a dog, but by calling them
with a small whistle. The sportsman has only to walk quietly through the wood, and every now
and then to mimic the call-note of the bird, and he will soon be answered ; then, by keeping quiet
and judiciously calling, the bird may often be enticed within a short distance close to the caller.

199

When a covey is scared up, they immediately settle in a tree, and may be shot one after the
other ; for they are not shy, and seek safety in sitting motionless, squatting close to the branch,
and trusting to concealment alone. It is difficult for a person who has not shot these birds to
imagine how very easy it is to look carefully all over a tree on which the birds are sitting and
still not be able to discover a single one ; for the colour of the plumage harmonizes so well with
the dark brown of the tree-bark that the bird appears to form a portion of the branch on which
he is sitting. Unlike the American Hazel-Grouse (JBonasa mnbellus) this species will not tree to
a dog, especially if the latter gives tongue, but will immediately leave the tree and take to flight.
Mr. Collett, however, informs us that dogs are trained to hunt after this bird, and when it flies
up in the tree they will sit twelve or fifteen paces distant and watch without barking, or only
making a very low noise. The flesh of the Hazel-Grouse is especially tasty ; and epicures hold
that the breast is a most delicate morsel. To the St.-Petersburg and Moscow markets whole
sledge-loads are sent for sale from the Governments of Jaroslaf and Archangel, where this bird
abounds, and bring comparatively high prices. They are seldom brought into our London
market ; but an occasional bird or two come over from Norway with the other game.

Respecting the nidification of the Hazel-Grouse we have pleasure in giving the following
excellent notes sent to us by our friend Mr. R. Collett, of Christiania : — " In its breeding-habits
it differs much from the other Wood-Grouse, as it is monogamous, each male having but one
female (who, however, is not always a paragon of fidelity), whereas the Capercailzie and Black-
cock have several mates. It is, however, so sociable in disposition that as soon as the young are
full-grown the whole family gather together and wander about until the commencement of the
winter. Then they scatter somewhat — as each male seeks a mate in December, and the pair live
together until after the next breeding-season. After pairing, the male leaves the female and lives
a solitary life as long as she is sitting, not honouring her again with his company until the young
are full-grown. Early in May the female seeks out a solitary and concealed place in the densest
part of the wood, where she scratches a hole and places her eggs on a simple bed of dry herbage.
The nest is generally placed amongst the heather, or under a bush, but always carefully con-
cealed ; and the female sits so close that she may almost be trodden on. The number of the eggs
varies according to the age of the female ; for middle-aged females lay as many as fourteen,
whereas young and very old females lay from eight to ten eggs."

Our friend Dr. Taczanowski has sent us a note as follows : — " It feeds principally on buds
and male flowers of different trees and bushes, such as the hazel and birch, seeds of many wood-
land plants and conifers, also on fruit, especially that of the service tree. It also feeds much on
insects in summer. About the end of April or early in May the female commences nidification.
She scratches a cavity about 8 inches in diameter by 6 inches in depth, at the foot of a bush
or in an open place, and lines it with a few dry grasses or leaves, where she deposits from eight
to fourteen eggs. She sits so closely that she may be caught on her nest. When the young are
hatched she attends to them until they are about half-grown ; and then the brood disperse, but
often reassemble." Naumann writes: — "In the summer they are found on the ground, and
hide amongst the underbrush or in the grass, but in the autumn and spring are often to be seen
on the trees, seldom, however, high up, but generally on the lowest branches. In the winter
they burrow in the snow, partly for security and partly in search of food, and often form long

8

burrows. If possible they roost on the branch of a tree or else on the ground, and in the winter
in the snow."

" This Grouse," says Bailly, " loves solitude, and affects the forests of pine and larch, the
hazel-thickets and beech-growth ; sometimes it is met with in places overgrown with birch
bushes, heather, myrtles, raspberry-bushes, and ferns, and free from trees, but close to woods,
where it retires after feeding

" The Gelinotte appears to me to be always monogamous. During the pairing-season the
males are not quarrelsome like the Blackcocks and Capercailzies ; nor like those birds do they fight
for possession of the females. He generally remains with the female with which he has paired
during the season of incubation, and accompanies her when she leaves the nest in search of food.
When the young are hatched he goes with her as she leads them about, and like her calls to
collect the family. In Savoy they lay in the month of May, forming a simple nest of straws, dry
leaves, and flexible roots, on the ground, under a hazel bush or heath, or a bunch of ferns, laying
from nine to fifteen eggs.

With regard to the food of the Hazel-Grouse, we cannot do better than translate the
following notes from Naumann's most excellent work on the Birds of Germany : — " In the
spring it feeds on buds and the catkins of the hazel, birch, and alder, as also the berries of the
juniper-bush, but seldom on the buds of this or of fir trees, which, however, it does not disdain
during the winter in places where berries are scarce. Later on it eats the young shoots of the
heath (Erica), of grasses, clover, and forest plants, as also of the blueberry bushes ; but towards
the summer it feeds principally on insects, eating all sorts of beetles, grasshoppers, flies, spiders,
ants, and ants' eggs, insect larvae, and small worms, which it scratches out of the ground ; small
snails are also found in its crop. This insect food, however, is always mixed with plants, buds,
and seeds. During the summer it appears to be fond of and feed principally on the red berries
of the Sambucus racemosa and the Vaccinium myrtillus, but also eats strawberries, currants,
raspberries, and blackberries (Bubus saxatilis and B. chamcemorus), as also berries oiB.fruticosus,
B. ccesius, Vaccinium vitis idcea, Bubus arcticus (in the north), Vaccinium uliginosum and V.
oxycoccus, Empetrum nigrum, and Arbutus uva ursi. It is said to eat the berry of Daphne
mezereum, which is poisonous to human creatures, and also the berries of Lonicera xylosteum.
In the autumn it feeds greedily on the mountain-ash berries (Sorbus aucuparia) ; and cranberries,
as they do not soon dry or fall, form a chief portion of its food in the winter. It eats the
berries of the common elder, the thorn, and the wild rose, as also the seeds of trees and plants,
of conifers, birch, and alder (in the north, of the dwarf birch, Betula nana), and beech-nuts."
Mr. Collett examined the contents of the stomach of a half-grown young bird shot in Nordmarken,
near Christiania, 25th of July 1868, and found it to contain vegetable matter only, viz. unripe
berries of Vacc. vitis i&oea, several berries (ripe) of Myrtillus nigra, and seeds of Trientalis euro-
pcea, Melampyrum sylvaticum, and Viola canina.

No better account of the habits of the Hazel-Grouse will be found than that given by
Mr. L. Lloyd, in his book on the Game Birds and Wild Fowl of Sweden and Norway, from
which we make the following extracts, in order to render our history of the species as complete
as possible : — " The flight of the Hazel-Hen is very noisy, but short withal, seldom extending
beyond a couple of hundred yards. During both summer and winter it is mostly on the ground,

201

but when flushed invariably takes refuge in a tree, rarely on its top, however, as some tell us,
but generally about halfway up, and amongst the most leafy of the branches. Where these
birds roost during summer and autumn I know not ; but in the winter time there is reason to
believe they often pass the night in the snow. In Finland, Mr. Wilhelm von Wright tells us,
the Hazel-Hen is found in larger or smaller packs, according to their greater or less abundance
in the district. It is not for me, of course, to question the accuracy of so good an observer ; but
singularly enough I myself never saw or heard of more than a single family in company.
Sweden, however, is not Finland ; and the habits of birds may vary in different countries. In
Scandinavia the Hazel-Hen is classed as a standfogel, or stationary bird ; and beyond doubt it is
about the most so of the genus Tetrao. The Capercailzie and the Blackcock, as shown, occa-
sionally migrate, for a time at least, from the locality where they were bred; but not so with
the Hazel-Hen, which would seem pretty much to confine itself to one district. Such at least is
the result of my experience, which has been considerable ; for, when roaming the forest, a day

seldom passed that we did not meet with some of these birds Its food in the autumn

consists of worms, larvae, and the various berries with which the Scandinavian forests abound ;
but in the winter, when the snow lies deep on the ground, it subsists chiefly on the tender tops
of the birch and the alder, especially the latter. I have then also found in their crops the stalks
and tops of the bleaberry. The pairing-season usually commences at the end of March or beginning
of April, though the time is somewhat dependent on the state of the weather. The sexes attract
each other by a peculiar and almost melancholy cry, that of the male consisting of a long-drawn
whistle, followed by a chirp ti hih ti ti ti ti ; whilst that of the female is more simple, being often
only a single sustained tih, vibrating or quivering towards its termination.

" The Hazel-Hen is readily domesticated. We are told, for instance, by Mr. Wilhelm von
Wright that ' as an aviary bird it is beyond every thing tame and amusing to its owner. The
more people are about, the sooner will it become reconciled to confinement. The first days of its
captivity, however, it will not eat any thing, but endeavours to conceal itself in a corner of its
prison-house ; for which reason it is best to leave it to itself, after placing food and water before
it. Red whortleberries and juniper-berries are the best to give it in the first instance; but
hemp-seed, barley, buck wheat, and other kinds of grain it eats with avidity after it has once
partaken of them. To induce it to eat, some berries should be put in the vessel containing the
water, which it is then sure to observe. As with domestic fowls, it eats, when in confinement,
meat, whether raw or boiled. It should be constantly supplied with dry sand placed in a box,
or something similar, as it daily ' dusts ' itself. Thus provided, especially should the sun shine,
it forms for itself a hole with its beak in the sand, which it throws over its body. Afterwards it
lies first on one side and then on the other, or, it may be, on its back, and with its eyes half shut.
Oftentimes it mounts on some little elevation in the coop and whistles. One is seldom fortunate
enough to rear the chicks when taken very young, most probably because the proper food cannot
be procured for them.' "

M. Sachse informs us that they are sometimes caught in the snares set for Fieldfares, and
baited with berries ; and snares are also placed for them, in sticks bent in a bow-shape and stuck
in the ground.

The eggs of the Hazel-Hen are rather elongated in shape, tapering slightly towards the

4 M

202

10

smaller end, and in colour are pale yellowish, sometimes with a reddish tinge, much lighter in
colour than the eggs of the black game, and are sparingly spotted with rufous. Some varieties
are almost unspotted, or only marked here and there with small dark red dots. A series of eggs
in Dresser's collection, procured in Styria, measured from lf^ by 1^ to l|-§ by l- 4 ^ inch, and,
compared with the eggs of the American representative of this species (B. umbellus), are more
elongated in shape and much more marked ; indeed the eggs of the Euffed Grouse are generally
unspotted. Dr. E. Rey informs us that five eggs in his collection, taken in Westphalia, average
403 by 29*2 millimetres, the largest measuring 41*5 by 3O0, and the smaller 39*25 by 28 - 5.

The figures in the Plate represent an adult male and female and a good-sized chick, all in
our own collection. We have described these same birds in detail in our accounts of the species
at the commencement of the article, in the preparation of which we have at the same time
examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. Sharpe and Dresser.

a, 6. Norway, January 1869 (W. Schliiler). b, ?. Sweden, January 1870 (W. Schluter). c, $ ad. Norrland,
August 3rd, 1871. d, $. Wermland, winter of 1871. e. Russia (Dr. Renard).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram,
a, c? . Christiania, Norway, July 1852. b, c. Sweden (Wheelwright).

E Mus. J. H. Gurney, jun.
a. Norway, October 1870 (bought in Leadenhall Market) . b, cj. Moscow, September lltb, 1869.

E Mus. Lord Lilford.
a, 6 . Southern Germany (Seidensacher) .

20"

sJ

Genus TETRAO.

Tetrao, Linnaeus, Syst.. Nat. i. p. 273 (1766).
Urogallus apud Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 180 (1829).
Lyrurus apud Swainson, Faun. Bor.-Am. p. 497 (1831).

The true Grouse inhabit the Palsearctic and Nearctic Regions, three species being found as
residents in the Western Palsearctic Region, They frequent woods, groves, heather-covered
localities, and especially places which are sparingly overgrown with trees, and open places in the
forests. They walk with ease, and run so fast that it is no easy matter to overtake a wounded
bird ; but they are often found on trees, and in the winter feed to a large extent on buds and
soft twigs, both of conifer and non-evergreen trees, birch catkins being a favourite staple of food
with some species. They are polygamous, the males meeting at regular resorts during the
pairing-season and fighting desperately for the possession of the females.

The nest is a mere hollow scratched in the ground, and sparsely lined with grass ; and the
eggs, which are numerous, are yellowish white or yellowish grey, blotched and spotted with
orange and rufous. When the young are hatched they are able to run almost directly, and are
carefully tended by the female, but utterly neglected by the male.

The food of the Grouse consists of seeds, fruits, berries, insects of various kinds, and the
soft twigs and buds of several species of forest trees.

Tetrao urogallus, the type of the genus, has the bill rather short, strong, curved, the upper
mandible decurved to the tip, which is narrow, rounded, sharp-edged ; nostrils lateral, basal,
oblong, concealed by the short feathers of the nasal membrane ; above the eyes is a semilunar
space of bare papillate skin ; wings short, broad, curved, the first quill shorter than the secon-
daries, the second shorter than the sixth ; tail long, rounded ; legs rather short, strong, feathered
to the base of the toes, which are bare, scutellate, with a marginal series of obtuse scales, which
project like the teeth of a comb ; claws short, strong, arched, the edges thin, the tip obtuse.

170

204

487

o P

o

i <c

DO

205

TETRAO TETEIX.

(BLACK GROUSE.)

Urogallus minor, Briss. Orn. i. p. 186 (1760).

Tetrao tetrix, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 274 (1766).

Le petit Tetras, Buff. Ois. ii. p. 255 (1772).

Urogallus tetrix, Kaup, Nat. Syst. p. 180 (1829).

Lyrurus tetrix, Swains. Faun. Bor.-Am. p. 497 (1831).

Tetrao juniperorum, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 509 (1831).

Tetrao rupestris, Brehm, torn. cit. p. 513 (1831).

Lyrurus derbianus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 132.

Tetrao derbianus (Gould), G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, iii. p. 516 (1849).

Tetrao per egrinus, Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 287.

Tetrao ericeus, Brehm, ut supra.

Black Grouse, Blackcock ( & ), Greyhen ( ? ), English ; Colleach-dubh (<S), Liath-cheare ( ? ),
Gaelic ; Tetras lyre, French ; Birkhahn (<3), Birkhuhn ( ? ), German ; Berkhoen, Dutch ;
Ctia furuda, Spanish ; Aarhane, Danish ; Orre, Swedish ; Aarfugl, Norwegian ; Tetereff,
Kosach, Poliasch ( 2 ), Riadbushka, Russian ; Zon, Bashkir ; Tar (<S), Kentar ( ? ), Ziran.

Figures notabiles.

Buff. PL Enl. pi. 172(d), 173 (?); Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 5; Gould B. of Eur.
pi. 250; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. pi. 157. figs. 1 & 2; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. pi. 31.
figs. 3 & 4 ; Elliot, Monog. Tetraon. pi. xii. ; Kjserboll. Orn. Dan. pi. xxviii. c ; Boux,
Orn. Prov. pis. 252 (d), 253 (?); Sundevall, Sv. Fogl. pi. xxxiii. figs. 1 (d), 2 (?),
3 ( ? steril.).

6 ad. niger : capite, collo, dorso et uropygio nitore cseruleo splendentibus : supra oculos macula nuda papillosa,
coccinea, : remigibus nigricanti-fuscis in pogonio externo vix griseo limbatis : secundariis et tectricibus
alarum majoribus ad basin albis, maculam magnam albam formantibus : cauda nigra, bifurca, rectricibus
tribus exterioribus elongatis et eurvatis : subtiis niger : abdomine griseo variegate- : subalaribus pure
albis : subcaudalibus albis, vix brunneo notatis : pedibus brunneis : rostro nigro : iride brunnea.

2 ad. mari dissimdis et minor : cauda, minus quam in mari bifurca : capite et collo ferrugineis, nigro trans-
fasciatis : dorso, uropygio et cauda nigris ferrugineo transverse fasciatis : remigibus brunneis, in
pogonio externo paUide ferrugineo marmoratis, secundariis nigricanti-brunneis pallide ferrugineo mar-
ginatis, ad apicem et basin albidis : cauda. nigra, ferrugineo transfasciata, ad apicem sordide albido
terminata, : subtiis rufescenti-brunnea, nigro fasciata et notata : abdomine griseo-albo lavato, plumis
albido apicatis : tibiis et tarsi plumis griseo-albis, indistincte fusco fasciatis : subcaudalibus albis,
fasciis rarioribus nigris notatis et albido apicatis : subalaribus albis, nigro-fusco fasciatis.

3f2

206

Puttus supra luteus : dorso et uropygio rufescente lavatis et conspicue nigro lentiginosis : alis ferrugineis,
nigricante maculatis, fasciis duabus isabellinis transverse notatis : subtus pallide luteus, pectore pallide
ferrugineo lavato.

Adult Male (St. Petersburg). General colour rich black, with blue reflections on the head, neck, back, and
rump; over each eye a large red warty comb, extending in front of the eye almost to the base of
the bill ; quills blackish brown on the outer web, washed with dull grey, shafts white ; secondaries and
larger wing-coverts white on the basal portion, the former constituting a conspicuous white alar bar,
the latter having the white portion almost concealed by the lesser coverts, which are black, not,
however, glossed with blue like the back ; inner secondaries rather dull black ; tail black, the outer
rectrices much elongated and curved outwards ; underparts black, on the thighs and lower part of the
abdomen varied with greyish white feathers ; under wing-coverts pure white ; under tail-coverts white,
with a few blackish brown marks ; feet dark brown ; bill black ; iris dark brown. Total length
22 inches, culmen 1 - 1, wing 10 - 4, tail, in the middle, 4*2, outer rectrices 8 - 5, tarsus 1'8.

Obs. According to Von Wright the old male bears a somewhat different plumage during the summer
season, from June to August, the head and neck being then rusty grey and black mixed, the throat
white, marked with black ; a broad black band passing under the eye from the bill backwards ; speci-
mens he kept in confinement also underwent this change.

Adult Female. Upper parts rich rufous, slightly washed with grey, all the feathers banded or marked with
black ; head more rufous than the rest of the upper parts, and the rump darker ; quills dull brown, on
the outer web marbled with rusty yellow; secondaries dull blackish brown, marbled with yellowish
rufous, at the base and tip white, forming two indistinct white bands across the wing ; tail forked, the
central feathers being almost three quarters of an inch shorter than the outer ones, in colour black,
marbled with rufous brown, and tipped with dirty white ; underparts rufous, banded and marked with
black; breast most rufous, and less marked with black than the other parts; centre of the abdomen
marked with greyish white, most of the feathers being tipped with that colour ; feathers on the thighs
and legs greyish white, indistinctly marked with dull brown ; under tail-coverts white, banded with
brown and black, and broadly tipped with white; under wing-coverts white, barred with blackish
brown; soft parts as in the male. Total length 15 inches, culmen 12, wing 8 - 8, tail 3 - 3, tarsus l - 85.

Obs. Sterile females are by no means uncommon, and are distinguishable by their darker colour and longer
and to some extent curved tails, which resemble those of the males in shape though not in colour.
Two unusually fine and old specimens, obtained at the St.-Petersburg market, are in my collection ; and
one of these I have figured. This bird has the head and neck much darker than in the adult female
above described, some of the feathers being bluish black towards the tip ; the back is much greyer than
in the ordinary female, and the rump glossed with purplish black ; tail shaped like that of the male, the
outer rectrices dull black, marbled on the outer web with rufous, the inner ones marbled on both webs
with rufous and grey, all being tipped with white ; wings much greyer than in the adult female, and
the white bands much more fully developed ; chin white, marked near the base of the mandible with
black, throat and fore part of the breast rufous grey, barred with glossy steel-black ; rest of the under-
parts dull blackish, most of the feathers with a grey central line, and tipped with that colour ; flanks
indistinctly marbled with grey ; legs and thighs as in the adult female ; under wing-coverts white,
barred with black near the edge of the wing ; under tail-coverts white, sparingly marked with brown.

Nestling (Wermland, Sweden, July 1872). Upper parts sulphur-yellow, on the back and rump washed with
rufous, and conspicuously blotched with black ; wings rufous, marked with blackish, and having two

207

conspicuous bands of a dull cream-colour across them; underparts sulphur-yellow, washed with pale
rufous on the breast.

Obs. In plumage the Blackgame is often subject to considerable variation. Mr. Collett informs me that
he has " seen many peculiar varieties, chiefly amongst the males, from various parts of Norway. Some
are almost uniform white in colour, others speckled with white; and in Southern Norway a variety
having the back and scapulars spotted with white is not uncommon, and I have seen at least a dozen
such birds in the various Norwegian museums. Sterile females are found annually. They agree with
the males more or less in plumage, but are easily recognizable by their under tail-coverts, which are
almost always pure white, unspotted, and by having the lower portion of the throat more or less white.
Only very old sterile females have the blue neck and curved tail-feathers. Sterility is not always a
sign of old age, as young sterile females are met with having diseased ovaries, which appears to be the
general cause of sterility."

The Black Grouse is found from Scandinavia down to Spain and Italy, and eastward through
Siberia into China.

In Great Britain it is tolerably numerous, but more so in the north than in the south, as it
cannot exist where cultivation is carried on to a great extent and its favourite moors are utilized
for the purposes of agriculture. Yarrell states that " in the southern parts of England, Black
Grouse are found in Sussex, on Ashdown forest, and on St. Leonard's forest near Horsham,
and from Pudmores along the brows of the heath-hills towards Tilford, and again from Tilford
up to the Devil's Punch-bowl on Hindhead. In 1815, H. M. Thornton, Esq., of Chatham,
brought two Blackcocks and three Greyhens from Holland. These birds were turned out on
the Hurtwood, a tract of heath between Guildford and Dorking. At that time this species of
game had been extinct in that part for fifty years ; but these foreign birds, being well preserved,
have replenished the district. They bred the following spring after their introduction; and the
first nest observed was within a hundred yards of the spot where they were first turned out.
Some of the descendants of these birds have strayed to the heathy districts between Farnham
and Bagshot, and have extended themselves as far as Finchampstead, in Berkshire. Black
Grouse occur again in Hampshire, on the New Forest, and thence along to the westward in
Dorsetshire ; they are found on Dartmoor and Exmoor, in Devonshire, and are abundant on
the property of Lord Caernarvon near Dulvarton. on the north-eastern border of Devonshire,
and the heaths of Somersetshire, and are found in Worcestershire and Staffordshire ; they
are found also on most of the extensive heaths of Shropshire, and on the Besyn chain near
Corvven. They are included in the Catalogue of the Birds of Lancashire, and from thence become
more plentiful on proceeding northwards." In Somersetshire it is no longer abundant; for
Mr. Cecil Smith, of Taunton, informs me that " it is now only an occasional visitant to the
Blagdon hills and some other parts of Somerset, where formerly it used to be more numerous.
On the Brendon hills and the wild open country from Dunster to Dunkerry and Exmoor it still
continues a tolerably numerous and regular inhabitant. In some of these parts, however, it is,
I fear, being gradually improved off the face of the earth by mining and agricultural operations."
In Norfolk, Mr. Stevenson writes, it is " a resident, though entirely confined to one district in
the neighbourhood of Lynn, where alone the various attempts to naturalize this species have
proved successful, the birds either dying in a natural way, or being killed off, beyond the scope

208

of their preserved boundaries, owing to the want of a sufficiently extended range of wide open
country. In that neighbourhood, however, it seems probable that this species has existed for a
very long period, fluctuating in numbers, but never wholly extinct ; and of late years they appear
to have increased considerably about Snettisham and Dersingham, on the L'Estrange estate, and
on property of Mr. Hamond at Bawsay, and Leziate, in the same neighbourhood, where an ample
extent of wood and heath, wild in the extreme, and but slightly preserved for other game, has
afforded the three most essential conditions of space, food and quiet. In this locality several
couples are annually killed during the shooting-season ; and they are also found in the autumn
at Sandringham, on the estate of His Eoyal Highness the Prince of Wales, though I am not sure
that they also breed there." Mr. Cordeaux, in his handy little work on the birds of the Humber
district, writes that " it was introduced some years since in the wild uncultivated district near
Frodingham, on the Trent side ; and I have seen an old cock bird that was shot in that neigh-
bourhood. Towards the close of the shooting-season of 1871-72, the Rev. H. G. Southwell shot
a Greyhen in the parish of £\ T ettleton, near Caistor."

To the north it becomes much more numerous, and in Scotland is one of the common game
birds in suitable localities throughout the country. Mr. R. Gray speaks of it as common on all
the mountain-ranges, hilly districts, and patches of upland heath, extending from the north of
Sutherlandshire to the Mull of Galloway. It is likewise found plentifully on many of the Inner
Hebrides. On Mull it is much commoner than the Red Grouse, as I have been informed by
Mr. Graham ; and on Islay, according to Mr. Elwes, it is increasing rapidly in the north part of
the island, although that portion of it is bare of cover. In autumn it regularly frequents the
stubble-fields there, morning and evening, to feed. I have observed the same habit of the species
on the Loch-Lomond range of hills, where it is very abundant. In this district the birds are
found from a moderate elevation to the summit of the hills on the west side ; but in the
breeding-season the females appear to come nearer the glens, especially those fringed with
birch trees, at the root of which the nests are often placed.

Being anxious to know whether black game could be obtained within sight of so large a
city as Glasgow, I applied to Mr. G. Shirlan, of Motherwell, who has kindly sent me the following
note : — " The moorland that I sometimes take a shot over is in the upper part of the parish of
Carluke, from which, in a clear day, St. Rollox is distinctly visible. Black game are scarcer
than Red Grouse, which are plentiful : the former breed sometimes well out in the moors on
suitable feeding-grounds, such as the margin of a watercourse, where there is plenty of bent-
grass and rushes ; but, for the most part, you find them on cultivated ground on the outskirts of
the moor, and the more readily if there should be a scraggy plantation, high beech and birch
hedges, and a meadow close by. It has become of late years tolerably common in the south-
west of Scotland. It wanders to the very verge of the rocky headlands, Burrow Head, and the
Mull of Galloway, and even to the heights above Port Patrick, whence it can, by lifting its head
above the heather, see the Irish coast." Though, as stated by Mr. Gray, it occurs within sight
of the Irish coast, it is not found in that country ; and Thompson writes that he has never met
with any satisfactory evidence of its ever having been indigenous in Ireland.

It has not been met with on the Faeroes or in Iceland ; but in Norway it has, according to

209

Mr. Collett, " a wider distribution than the other two species of the genus Tetrao, and is certainly
more numerous.

" The Capercaillie is found further north, and breeds in the fir-woods of Alten and South
Varanger in 70° N. lat., whereas the Black Grouse does not range further than the birch-forests
of Tromso and the valley of the Maalsch, in about 69-|° N. lat.; and the Hazel-Grouse scarcely
seems to pass into the Arctic circle. The Capercaillie, as well as the Hazel-Grouse, are so
strictly confined to the conifer-woods, that they scarcely occur on the west coast, where the
conifer-woods are almost wanting ; the black game, on the contrary, thrives well in the birch-
woods of Western Norway.

" On the fell-side this species even passes above the birch belt ; consequently its breeding-
haunts in some instances coalesce with those of the Dalrype [Lag opus alius) ; and thus the
singular hybrid the Rypeorre [Lagopus tetrici-albus) ; is occasionally produced." Barth records
it from the Lofoten Islands ; common on Lango and Hasselo " in localities where both birch and
juniper grow; and it is said to have been common on Moldo ;" and Nilsson states that in Sweden
it is found in almost all woods, in the mountains as well as in the level country, from Skane up
into Lapland, and especially affects birch-woods. On the fells it ranges into the birch and pine
regions, but is rare above the fir growth." In Finland, Professor Malmgren informs me, it
breeds up as high as 67^° N. lat. ; and I found it tolerably numerous, and obtained not a few of
its eggs when at Uleaborg. In Northern Russia it is numerous, and said to be especially so in
the Government of Archangel. Judging from the great numbers sent us to the markets at
St. Petersburg, and the low prices at which I have purchased them there, it must be a very
common species throughout Northern Russia." Mr. Sabanaeff writes that it is generally distri-
buted throughout the Ural, and especially numerous in the birch-woods of the south-eastern
slopes of that mountain-range ; and Mr. Taczanowski informs me that it is " common in Poland,
where it is met with chiefly in the swampy portions of the country, but it is much more numerous
in Lithuania and Eastern and Western Russia. Borggreve includes it as a resident and partial
migrant throughout North Germany, but, excepting in Prussia and Silesia, nowhere common.
Mr. R. Blasius states that between 1841 and 1848 it bred in the Sophienthal, Brunswick, but
has not been observed there since the latter year. In Denmark it used to be common on the
heaths of Jutland, Slesvig, and Holstein, but is now only very rare in that country. In Holland,
Professor Schlegel states, it is only found in the heath-covered moors of Overijssel, Drentsche,
and Groningen. Baron de Selys-Longchamps writes that it is found in all the heath-covered
districts towards Luxemburg and the Prussian frontier. De la Fontaine records it as now
restricted to the Ardennes, the Canton of Salm, occasionally appearing in those of Bastogne
and Clervaux ; and Degland and Gerbe state that it is a tolerably common species in France
(not naming any particular locality), and especially so in the wooded mountain-districts.

It does not appear to occur in Portugal ; but Mr. Howard Saunders informs me that it " is
resident and tolerably abundant in the eastern portions of the Pyrenees, where the Catalans know
it well by the name of Cua furuda, or ' forked-tail."' Passing eastward again we find it recorded
by Bailly as " common and resident throughout the wooded portions of the Savoy Alps." Bettoni
figures it amongst the birds which breed in Lombardy, and states that it nests in the mountains
above the Lata district, although rapidly becoming scarce. Salvadori writes that it is " resident

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in the mountainous portions of Liguria, but elsewhere accidental;" and Savi says that it "has
but rarely been obtained in the Apennines, and altogether Tuscany is not suited to its habits."
Doderlein records it as accidental in Modenese.

In Greece it does not appear to occur ; but in Southern Germany it is common in suitable
localities. Mr. L. Stejneger refers to it as not uncommon in Meran, in the Southern Tyrol.
Seidensacher records it as found, but by no means common, in the Bacher mountains of Styria ;
the Bitter von Tschusi Schmidhofen as common in Austria. In Bohemia, Fritsch writes, " it has
a wider range than the Capercaillie." He saw it in the willow-growth on the Elbe, near Brandeis,
in the autumn ; and it occurs at Kuchelbad and Komoran, near Prague. The game-list shows
that in 1857 2300 head were killed in Bohemia, and in 1864 1336. Albinoes are not unfre-
quently obtained, and are said to occur regularly in one particular part of the Bohmerwald.
Count Casmir Wodzicki writes that " it is rare in the Carpathians, but is by no means uncommon
in the low woods of the Tatra mountains, and is resident in the almost impenetrable thickets,
only coming out to the bare spots amongst the rocks during the pairing-season." In Southern
Russia it does not appear to occur so far south as the Crimea ; but it is certainly found as far
south as Ekaterinburg.

To the eastward it occurs through Siberia as far as China. Dr. Radde met with it breeding
in the mountains of the Island of Ochon. In the winter of 1857-58 numbers were observed on
the islands of the Amoor and eastward to about 150 versts from the mouth of the Ussuri. In
the summer they were rare in the Bureja mountains, and also near the mouth of the Dseja.
Von Middendorff observed them rarely on the Jenesei in 67° N. lat., and in 69° lost sight of them.
In the Stanowoi mountains they were numerous from Jakutsk to the Little Aim, but from that
river to Udskoi-Ostrog not a single one was seen ; and he was told that the black game did not
come from the Aldan. Nor did he find them on the shores of the sea of Ochotsk, or on the
boundary mountains of the Stanowoi, but he heard that they were found on the Jorach, in
Mantchuria. He himself saw a few on the Nara, in Mantchuria, and was assured that to the
south of that they were common in the morasses, but not met with on the southern slope of the
boundary mountains. Dr. von Schrenck, confirming the above statements, says that he never
saw it on the Lower Amoor, or the island of Saghalien ; but west of the Bureja mountains the
Bizar natives described a Grouse to him which could be no other than the present species.
Mr. Swinhoe records it from China, without giving further particulars, and on the. authority of
Pere David as occurring in Northern China.

The Black Grouse is an inhabitant of the heath-covered moors and woods, frequenting more
especially (as may be inferred from its German appellation Birkhahn, or " Birchcock ") the birch
growth. With us in Scotland it frequents the moors ; but in Scandinavia I have more usually
met with it on the outskirts of the mixed conifer and non-evergreen forests and in the bush-
covered swamps. It is, comparatively speaking, a shy bird, more especially so in localities where
it is exposed to persecution during the shooting-season. In Norway, Mr. Collett informs me, " it
prefers tracts where conifer growth is interspersed with non-evergreen trees and traversed by
brooks ; but it avoids the most desolate parts of the pine-woods, which latter the Capercaillie
affects. They usually pass the day on the ground ; and only in winter, when the snow covers the
ground, do they feed in the trees.

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" They run with great swiftness; and every sportsman will have experienced the difficulty of
catching a winged Black Grouse.

"In winter they feed almost exclusively upon soft willow twigs and birch catkins (here
called Haurakler). At this season of the year they collect in flocks, and make excursions to the
neighbouring birch-woods. The whole flock often settle down upon a single tree, and are so
occupied with picking catkins, that with ordinary precaution one can easily approach them.
And there can be no prettier sight than a flock of black game sitting on one of the richest catkin-
bearing trees on a clear frosty day. With easy and graceful motions they pick off the catkins,
while the tender boughs bend under the weight of their heavy bodies, and all over the tree the
glistening icicles hang down reflecting the sunshine like a thousand diamonds.

"It is characteristic of the black game that, during the heavy snow-storms in winter or
severe cold, they seek shelter from the weather by suffering themselves to be snowed up, or by
burying themselves in the snow drifts. In this manner they often penetrate several yards down
in the snow, or make long galleries under it ; and they only leave their place of refuge when
compelled by hunger to do so, or when the storm is over." I may add that I confirm from
personal observation what Mr. Collett writes respecting this bird suffering itself to be snowed up,
and have seen the Ruffed Grouse of North America (Bonasia umbellus) do the same.

The Black Grouse is polygamous, — the males meeting at a regular place of assembly during
the pairing-season, where they are joined by the females, who, it appears, seek the males at that
season of the year — the pairing-time being usually in the month of April, but varying somewhat
according to the season. One of the most peculiar scenes I have ever witnessed was what the
Swedes call an " orrlek," an assemblage of black game during the pairing-season, when the males
fight for the possession of the females. I have, when in Finland and Sweden, been on several
occasions a witness of these scenes. The locality selected for the " lek " is usually some partially
cleared spot in the forest, or a morass surrounded by forest trees ; and the performance commences
before day-break. One of the best " leks " I ever saw was one I visited not far from the town of
Wyburg. A young Russian, a clerk to my host, told me he knew where this " lek "-place was,
and proposed that we should visit it. A full hour before dawn we were up and en route ; and
before the first signs of dawn showed themselves I was ensconced in a small hut of boughs in the
middle of a forest-clearing, and my companion in another at some distance. Before long a few
black game appeared in the high trees skirting the clearing ; and after a short interval a fine old
cock alighted close to my hut, and immediately began to " spela " or drum. Strutting proudly
about, dragging his wings, spreading his tail like a fan, and with outstretched neck uttering most
peculiar and extraordinary sounds, he somewhat resembled an immature Turkey-cock. The
notes uttered by the drumming cock are by the Swedes called " kuttrande " or cooing, and
" blasande " or blowing — the one being a peculiar sort of cooing or gobbling, and the other a
sort of sharp blowing sound, which Mr. Collett, in a letter to me describing the notes of this
bird, very aptly describes as a long-drawn houijsch. Every now and then the bird jumped up in the
air ; and during the " lek " I saw several times one of the birds turn an irregular sommersault.
The male above referred to had not been long on the ground before another and another Black-
cock came down from the neighbouring trees, until about a dozen were assembled, all strutting,
drumming, and cutting the same peculiar capers. The first two which met, immediately

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attacked each other; and a tough battle ensued, the two birds squaring up to each other like
thoroughbred fighting-cocks. I was in hopes of seeing a battle royal, such as I believe not
uncommonly occurs ; but neither on this nor any other occasion did I see more than three engaged
together ; and these certainly carried on a sort of triangular duel with great zest, and went at
each other fighting with beak and claws, making the feathers fly pretty fast. During the time
the males were thus employed, the females, which did not at first show themselves, ere long
appeared amongst the bushes close to the scene of combat, and appeared to evince their anxiety
to welcome the victor to their embraces ; for as the " lek " proceeded they came closer to the
combatants, evidently eager to do their part of the performance. Mr. Collett, who has in Norway
witnessed more " leks " than I have in other parts of Scandinavia, informs me that the oldest and
strongest cocks are the first to open the ball ; and from the tough combats that ensue I can well
believe this. The call-note is clear and loud, and may be heard at a long distance in the clear
atmosphere of a northern spring morning ; it is, Mr. Collett says, much " louder than that of the
Capercaillie, which is comparatively weak and cannot be heard unless one is close to where the
bird is calling. During the time the old birds are fighting and blowing, the young males keep
at a respectful distance on the outskirts of the drumming-place, imitating their seniors as well as
they can. During the time he is drumming, the Blackcock is not, like the Capercaillie, deaf and
blind to what passes around it, but, on the contrary, he has his wits well about him, and only
forgets himself during the most fierce combats. The " lek " is often repeated in October and
November, when the weather is clear ; and some individuals may be heard at almost every season
of the year: I have repeatedly heard them on the heights near Christiania in the late autumn
when the weather was mild or rainy. The female visits the " lek "- or " drumming "-place
every morning to receive the embraces of the male, the pairing-season extending over about eight
to fourteen days; and she then deposits her eggs, which are usually eight or nine in number.
They select for the purpose of nidification some quiet spot under a bush, or in the heather,
though sometimes the nest is in quite an open place ; still the colour of the female harmonizes so
well with the ground that, when sitting, she is not easily distinguished ; and she sits so close that
she will only leave her eggs when almost trodden on. When the young are hatched they follow
the mother, and are fed almost exclusively on ants' eggs, and various sorts of insects ; when a little
older they pluck off the leaves of various plants, tender grass-shoots, unripe seed-pods, and berries ;
and when in the autumn they are almost full-grown they, like their parents, feed almost exclu-
sively on vegetable matter, and their crops are often found distended with various sorts of berries,
such as Umpetrum nigrum, Juniperus, Myrtillus nigra, and M. uliginosa ; nor do they reject unripe
berries, as the crop is often quite full of these unripe berries, though ripe ones are to be met
with in abundance. When the young are in the down plumage, they pass the night on the
ground under the sheltering wing of their mother ; and she also covers and protects them when
the weather is bad. So soon as the young can fly they flutter up and roost in the low branches
of the trees. Both old and young birds are very fond of dusting themselves in sandy or black
mouldy earth. The old birds feed on vegetable matter, tender shoots, and leaves of various wild
plants, and berries of various descriptions. Mr. R. Gray writes that a curious fact is mentioned
by Dr. John Walker, at one time Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh, in
his work entitled 'An Economical History of the Hebrides,' &c. In vol. i. p. 337, the following

21 c

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note occurs : — " The stomach of the Tetrao tetrix, Linn., or Blackcock, after the bird had lived
in woods during winter, was several times found stuffed with the foliage of the Polypodium
vulgare, Linn., or common polypody. This is the only certain instance that has occurred of any
animal living upon a plant of the fern kind in this country."

The nest of this species is a mere depression in the soil, scratched by the hen, sometimes
without any lining whatever, but at others scantily lined with dried grass or leaves. The eggs
are yellowish grey or yellowish white, blotched and spotted with yellowish red and rusty red, in
size varying from 2-^ by 1^ to If ^ by \\^ inch. In the series I have in my collection I do
not find any great variety, some only being darker and more thickly spotted than others; and
one egg which I obtained in Finland is pure white, unspotted.

Like all polygamous birds, the black game interbreed with other allied species ; and some
peculiar hybrids are produced. Those best known are the so-called " Rackel-foglar," being a
cross between the Blackcock and the Capercaillie hen, of which I treat in writing the history
of Tetrao urogallus. Another cross, that between the present species and the Willow-Grouse, is
much rarer, but has been met with on many occasions, as will be seen by the following notes
from Mr. Collett. The finest I ever saw of these so-called " Rip-orrar " was one in the St.
Petersburg Museum ; but I also saw a very fine specimen which was brought to Leadenhall
Market two winters ago, and which somewhat resembled the one figured by Mr. Lloyd in his
' Game Birds and Wild Fowl of Sweden.' Mr. Lloyd writes that " it is even on record that the
Blackcock has occasionally formed still stranger alliances. We are told, for instance, that Mr.
Skogberg, having purchased one of these birds from a Finn, confined it in a roomy coop, and
that some days afterwards he introduced to it a common speckled hen in the hopes of obtaining
a breed between them. At first the Blackcock evinced great displeasure ; for he not only gave
the stranger a most ungracious reception, but actually maltreated her. By degrees, however, his
dislike diminished ; and at length he received in good part his allotted partner, and pairing took
place between them. When she had laid ten eggs, and shown an inclination to ' sit,' the Black-
cock was removed from the coop, and she was placed on the eggs ; and in due time seven chicks
were produced. At first these had a difficulty to walk ; and their legs were therefore bathed with
brandy; but afterwards they throve well and grew rapidly. When full-feathered, they most
resembled the mother in colour, all being speckled ; their tails were also of the same shape as
hers ; but their feet and legs most resembled those of the father. The heads of all were provided
with a broad comb. They were females, and proved good ' laying hens.'"

Mr. R. Collett has just sent to me a little pamphlet written by himself, from which I
extract the following interesting details respecting the so-called Biporre : — " The bird here called
' Rypeorre ' (a name originally adopted from the Swedish) has been known to naturalists, so far
back as the close of the last century, as a hybrid, bred between Tetrao tetrix and Lagopus alius.
Here, too, it is the Blackcock which, pairing with the female Ptarmigan (Tetrao tetrix <S , and
Lagopus alius 2 ), is the reputed father of so singular a progeny.

" Nilsson and most other ornithologists named this form Tetrao lagopoides (or lagopides) ;
and Sundevall (' Svenska Foglarne,' p. 255), reasoning from the analogous facts recorded of the
foregoing hydrid (vide p. 236), Tetrao lagopodi-tetricides.

" In tracing the origin of this hybrid, which has almost hitherto invariably occurred in but

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one dress and one sex, it is necessary first to investigate whether there are not two distinct forms
of ' Kypeorre ' — the one bred between Tetrao tetrix (<3) and Lagopus alius ( ? ), the other between
Lag opus albus (6) and Tetrao tetrix ( ? ).

" A similar hypothesis, as previously mentioned, has been started to account for the parentage
of the Rakkelhane ; but the argument proving its fallacy with that form of hybrid, holds equally
good as regards the 'Rypeorre.' Now it is an established fact that all individuals of the
Rypeorre-hybrid, if procured at any given season of the year, are singularly alike both in size
and coloration of plumage ; and hence their origin surely cannot be traced to more than one of
the two possible connexions.

"As previously stated, the exertions of Swedish sportsmen and naturalists have provided
ample proof of the true parentage of the Eakkelhane. On one occasion eggs taken from a
sitting Tetrao urogallus (?) were incubated by a Domestic Hen, the issue being a brood of
Rakkelhanes. Such a fact, taken in connexion with the similarity of appearance presented by all
individuals of the Rakkelhane-hybrid, renders further evidence superfluous.

" So direct a proof of the Rypeorre has not yet been obtained ; and it must therefore be
inferred from less conclusive facts.

" Nilsson having suggested (in his ' Ornithologia Suecica,' vol. i. p. 303) the probability of the
Rypeorre-hybrid being bred ' a T. tetrice patre et Tetr. subalpino femina,' the conjecture has from
that time to this remained unchallenged. By reason of his fine plumage, elegant form, and excess
of vitality, Tetrao tetrix (d 1 ) has been able to form these alien connexions. No other evidence, I
believe, has been advanced in proof of the assertion but the fact that female Ptarmigan are said
sometimes to make their appearance at the ' Aarfuglelege ' (pairing-haunts of black game).

" On closer inspection, this theory of parentage does not appear to be in strict accordance
with fact. Nay, the origin of the ' Rypeorre ' can, I maintain, with far greater probability be
explained as the result of Lagopus albus (6) pairing with Tetrao tetrix ( ? ).

" This view has, indeed, been formerly entertained in a few instances, but found little favour
with naturalists. The following are the chief arguments that have led me to adopt it.

" It is well known that the Rakkelhane ( 6 ) greatly exceeds its male parent in size, whereas,
in that respect, it exhibits a perfect resemblance to its mother. Now, reasoning from analogy,
the size of the male Rypeorre should correspond exactly with that of its supposed mother [Tetrao
tetrix ? ), and exceed that of its supposed father [Lagopus albus <5 ) in due proportion. And
this, indeed, is found to be the case. That the female Lagopus albus should generate the large-
sized, strong-limbed Rypeorre is every whit as improbable as that Tetrao tetrix (?) can be the
mother of the Rakkelhane. The coloration, too, of the parent birds favours, I think, the assump-
tion. That the Tetrao urogallus (?) should pair with the Blackcock, which, though smaller in
size, resembles even closely her proper male in plumage, is not surprising ; but that the female
Ptarmigan should pair with the Blackcock, a bird so different in appearance from her true mate,
is not so easy to explain.

" On the other hand, it is far from improbable that a young Greyhen which has never
paired should yield in a moment of surprise to the amatory advances of a male Ptarmigan in his
dark-coloured summer dress.

" It has long been known that Ptarmigan will repair to the breeding-haunts of black game ;

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but, whenever there has been a question of sex, these unbidden visitors have been regarded as
females.

" Now, whether female Ptarmigan actually consort with black game in their breeding-
haunts is a point which has not yet been satisfactorily settled ; indeed I am inclined to think
there is little probability of such being the case. On the other hand, it has been proved incon-
testibly that male Ptarmigan do. One out of the small number of Ptarmigan killed from time
to time on the heights round Christiania (a locality in which this bird very rarely breeds) was a
male individual, which had boldly intruded into a ' Legeplads ' of black game, where he was seen
to deport himself in a manner precisely similar to that of the legitimate lords. The sex of this
specimen was examined by Professor Rasch. These visits of the Ptarmigan to the breeding-
haunts of black game are much more frequent than is generally supposed. It has been stated
by experienced sportsmen that in Nordland and some parts of Nordre Trondhjem's Amt,
localities where the vertical range of each of the two species may be said to coalesce, a few male
Ptarmigan are to be found at almost every breeding-haunt of black game.

" The cause of this abnormal passion in the male Ptarmigan is not easily traced. True, the
males oi Lag opus albus are supposed to exceed females in number, in which case a supernumerary
individual of the former sex, which had sought in vain for a mate among his own species, would
not hesitate to pair with a Greyhen he might chance to fall in with. But connexions of this
kind are repugnant to nature ; and in many cases the only feasible explanation is to be found in
a violent, irresistible desire to breed out of the species. As regards the Rakkelhane, it is not
stated that paucity of females is the cause which induces the Blackcock to mate with the hen of
the Capercaillie. Again, the male Ptarmigan scarcely yields to the Blackcock in the violence
of its sexual instincts, which is shown by a remarkable fact, of which my friend Professor Friis
was an eye-witness. In the spring of 1857, he observed on one of the most elevated farms in
Nordmcere, Bergens Stift, a male Ptarmigan which haunted the homestead for several days in
succession in amatory companionship with a white speckled domestic hen. The result of this
singular connexion is unknown. As the Rakkelhane resembles its progenitor (Tetrao tetrix) in
coloration of plumage, so also does the male Rypeorre. This similarity between the Rypeorre
and its male parent is in many respects very striking ; and though considerable numbers of the
Rypeorre are no doubt annually produced, they are seldom recognized as such, being sold as fine
examples of Ptarmigan in the spring or autumn plumage.

"Finally, it is worth recording, that two young males, shot in the month of October 1845,
at Hedemora, in Sweden, were accompanied by a female bird, apparently their mother, which was
supposed to be a Greyhen.

"For the theory of parentage here advanced there is indeed no positive proof; but there
can be little doubt that some intelligent sportsmen will ere long witness the male Ptarmigan and
Greyhen in copula, if indeed still more conclusive evidence be not obtained.

"Should our views on this subject prove correct, the names of the Rypeorre-hybrid (Tetrao
lagopoides and Tetrao lagopodi-tetricides) can no longer be retained. If, indeed, it is necessary to
bestow a special designation on this median form, the generic name should undoubtedly be
derived from that of the male parent, the specific name being a compound of the mother's subor-
dinated to that of the father. The name would then be Lagopus tetrici-albus ; and this mode of

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designation could be easily applied to hybrids which, though yet unknown, may possibly, nay
probably do exist.

"The hybrid origin of this bird was unquestionably first pointed out in the year 1795 by
Amtmand Sommerfelt, who, in the ' Topographisk Journal f. Norge,' part 14, p. 50, gives an
excellent description of two specimens from the districts bordering on the Mjcesen (Eidsvold, Biri).
These individuals, which were clearly male birds in winter dress, are recorded as a ' Blanding af
Aarfugl og Bype' (hybrid between black game and Btarmigan). This, too, is the first time the
bird is found mentioned by a native author.

"In 1823, an individual was described by Bastor Sommerfelt (afterwards rector of the parish
of Saltdalen) in the ' Mag. f. Naturv.' 1st series, vol. ii. This individual, also procured from a
district bordering on the Mjcesen (Toten), was a male in summer plumage.

" The first individual preserved in any Norwegian collection was a male in winter dress ; it
was sent to Brofessor Esmark from Eceraas, in 1837. In the course of the next thirty years not
more than half a dozen individuals are known to have been observed ; they were all males pro-
cured from the south of the country (Christiansand Stift, Bergen Stift, Hamar Stift).

"Brom 1870-73 the University Museum has been so fortunate as to obtain six new speci-
mens, but all male birds. One of them was a young individual in autumn plumage, the rest
being in the normal winter garb. Bive were procured from the south-eastern tracts of the
interior (Gudbrandsdalen, Osterdalen) ; the remaining bird was shot in Saltdalen (65° nearly),
north of the Bolar Circle, the most northerly point at which it is known to have occurred (the
skeleton only of this individual is preserved).

" No female of this hybrid has hitherto, I believe, been met with in Norway.

" Of the habits of the Eypeorre scarcely any thing is known from Norway. Of six indi-
viduals which I have had an opportunity of examining the last few years in the flesh, five had
evidently been caught in snares set for Btarmigan. Now, most of such snares being set on the
fell-sides in the birch-belt (on the southern fells, from 2500 to 3400 feet above the level of the
sea), it would seem to be a resident at the same altitude as its male parent (Lagopus). The
sixth individual was transmitted from Saltdalen, in Nordland, by Mr. Berbom, who had killed it
in winter amongst Btarmigan. Here the locality was a mountain-ridge, covered with a growth
of birch, and distinguished by round rocky elevations, small mosses, and tarns. In this spot
there is always a good supply of Btarmigan and black game, whose respective ranges in northern
latitudes sometimes coalesce ; and apparently there was no lack of pairing birds for either of the
two species.

"The crop and stomach of an individual shot in Gudbrandsdalen, December 7th, 1870,
contained a number of fragments of a Salix (some of them 15 millimetres in length), fragments
and numerous berries of Myrtillus nigra, tops of Calluna vulgaris (about 30 millimetres in length),
and a few leaves of Arctostaphylos alpina. That of another individual (December 6th, 1872) was
filled with the tops and seeds of Carex stellulata, amongst which were found a few berries of
Oxycoccos palustris and Juniperus communis, some of the latter being unripe. In the specimen
last procured (Bebruary 28th, 1873) I found leaves of Vaccinium vitis idcea, the fragments and
buds of a willow, and of Myrtillus nigra.

" Of these several descriptions of food, Arctostaphylos alpina indicates a habitat of considerable

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altitude, and some of the others that this bird, in winter time at least, frequents humid
localities."

The black game are shot and snared in various ways. First amongst these modes I may
name that of shooting them on the pairing-ground, a most cruel and unsportsmanlike pro-
ceeding, which I cannot too strongly condemn, and may add that, though I have visited these
" lek "-places on several occasions, I have never killed a bird on any of them. The sportsman (1),
hidden in a small hut of boughs, waits until he can get a pot shot into the combatants, and fires ;
and by letting the killed or wounded birds remain on the ground, several shots may be obtained
on the same morning; but should the fowler emerge from his place of concealment all the birds
take wing and leave the scene of action. In many parts of Scandinavia very good black-game
shooting may be had with a well-trained pointer ; but the usual mode in vogue there is to make
use of a " Fogel-hund," or dog trained to tree the bird and bark until his master comes and
shoots it down from its perch. Great numbers are also shot by making use of a stuffed decoy-
bird called a " Bulvan," which is placed on a pole and stuck in a birch tree, the fowler being
hidden within easy range. The birds are driven by beaters, and when they alight on the tree
where the decoy-bird bird is, or one near it, are shot down. Of the various poaching modes of
snaring black game I will not treat here, but refer any of my readers who wish for information
on tbat subject to the work by Mr. Lloyd, which I quote above.

The specimens figured are, on the left side of the Plate an adult male and female, and on
the right side a very old sterile female, all three being in my collection. The birds described are
also in my own collection, excepting the young bird in down, which was lent to me by Baron A.
von Hiigel.

t '

In the preparation of the above article 1 have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, <3,b, $. Aboyne, Aberdeenshire (/. Walters), c, 6 . Wermland, Sweden, February 22nd, 1872. d, <$ juv.
Christiania, October 1871 (R. Collett). e, 6 juv. Christiania, December 1871 (Collett). f, 6 ,g, 2, h, i,
2 steril. St. Petersburg market.

E Mus. A. von Hiigel.
a, pullus. Wermland, Sweden, July 1872.

E Mus. J. H. Gumey, jun.

a, <5 . Leadenhall Market, September 1870. b, ? . Leadenhall Market, October 1870. c, d juv. Durham,
August 28th, 1869.

218

488

GEORGIAN BUCKGROUSE.

TETRAO MLOKOSIEW1CZI.

219

TETEAO HLOKOSIEWICZI.

(GEORGIAN BLACK GROUSE.)

Tetrao mlokosiewiczi, Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1875, p. 267.

Figura nulla.

3 ad. ex toto iiigerrimus vix viridi cseruleo nitens, subcaudalibus concoloribus : subalaribus posticis et axillari-
bus niveis : cauda. elongata, incurvata, rectricibus externis quam centrales longioribus : crista simili ei
Tetraonis tetricis : remigibus et tarsorum plumis nigro-fuscis.

2 ad. mari dissimilis, griseo brunneoque subtiliter undulata : abdomine medio atro : cauda, elongata, rectricibus
centralibus vix brevioribus.

Adult Male. Entire plumage glossy black, witb deep bottle-green reflections, even tbe under tail-coverts
similarly coloured to tbe rest of tbe plumage ; binder under wing-coverts and axillaries pure white ;
tail mucb elongated, at tbe tip bent downwards and slightly outwards, all the feathers on the terminal
portion trough-shaped, the outer rectrices about two inches longer than the centre ones; inner portion
of the under wing-coverts pure white ; space over the eye covered with a red warty comb, as in Tetrao
tetrix; quills and feathers on the tarsus rather browner than the rest of the plumage. Total length
about 20 inches, culmen T05, wing 7'9, tail 9 - 0, tarsus 2"25.

Adult Female. Differs considerably from the female of T. tetrix in coloration ; general coloration greyish,
closely vermiculated witb blackish brown and rusty brown, the upper parts being rather more rufous
brown, and the under parts rather less rufous ; throat whiter, the markings being wider apart ; quills
dark brown, the primaries marbled on the outer web with light brown, and the secondaries rather boldly
marked with blackish and light reddish, and tipped with white; tail long, almost square, blackish brown,
closely variegated with rufous and sandy yellow ; underparts closely vermiculated with blackish brown
on a greyish ground;' centre of the abdomen marked with black; under tail-coverts reddish, broadly
barred with blackish, and tipped with white. Culmen l'Oo, wing 7 - 8, tail 6"5, tarsus 2 - 25.

It is somewhat remarkable that a new and very distinct species of Grouse should exist within
the limits of the Western Palsearctic Kegion, and should only quite lately have been discovered.
Such is, however, the case ; for the first specimens were sent to Warsaw by Mr. Mlokosiewicz in
1875, to Mr. Taczanowski, who sent a description to the Zoological Society of London. Sub-
sequently, on my applying to him, Mr. Taczanowski kindly intrusted the types to me to he
figured in the present work, and forwarded to me the next specimens received by him from
Mr. Mlokosiewicz.

As may be surmised from the fact that it has remained so long undiscovered, the present
species has a very restricted range, being as yet only known to inhabit the Caucasus ; and all the
information I can obtain respecting it is embodied in the following notes received from the
discoverer of the species, Mr. Mlokosiewicz, through Mr. Taczanowski : — ■

" I found this Grouse generally distributed throughout the principal chain of the Caucasus,

2a

220

from Kadora (Kachetie, opposite the village of Sabuji, fifteen versts from Kwarel) to Zakataly,
a distance of about a hundred versts. I observed it in the mountains of Kapuczynsk, the prin-
cipal place in which is Bezyt, and near Balakna, one of the Bogosk mountains; and I fully
believe that it occurs throughout the entire chain of mountains. It occurs in the mountains of
Armenia to near Achalcyk, near the frontiers of Turkey, at Delizana, the highest place on the
route from Tiflis to Erivan, and on Mount Ararat, which makes it probable that it occurs also
in Kurdistan. In general it is found in hilly localities covered with herbage.

"I saw a specimen in the Museum at Tiflis, but do not know whence it came, as it is
labelled merely 'Tetrao tetrix, L.' It is difficult to define the altitudes of the different localities
frequented by this species, as they vary according to circumstances. For instance, at Lagodechi,
on the further end of the mountain, behind which begins the arable region, it is found at 8700
metres, whereas at Manglis the height attained is 6320 metres, &c. The localities in the neigh-
bourhood of Lagodechi, as well as in the lowlands in the district of Kapucrinske, are very varied
in their characteristics — cold and damp, owing to fogs and incessant rains; marshes, however,
there are none. On the lower border of this region the hill is sprinkled with the following
trees : — Fagus sylvatica ; Acer, sp. ; Sorbus, sp. ; Rosa canina ; Rubus iclmis ; Fragaria vesca ;
Vaccinium myrtillus ; and a species of creeping juniper which is found at a great height.

" This Grouse is nowhere numerous, as the region it inhabits is narrow, and it never descends
down the mountains. About twenty years ago it was much more numerous than it now is, being
as it were protected owing to the war, as was also Tetraogallus ; for the herdsmen were afraid
to enter the country with their cattle. Now the entire district is full of flocks and herds, espe-
cially in the spring, when grass is still more scanty in the more elevated regions. The birds are
therefore continually disturbed, and their eggs are taken and eaten by the shepherds. I have
generally, I may add, found the males more numerous than the females.

" I know but little of the habits of the present species. I have shot them late in May and
early in June, when the males were busy with their courtship and were drumming ; but we were
never fortunate enough to witness them when engaged in the combats for the possession of the
females so characteristic of the Black Grouse, nor did we hear their pairing-call. It is partial
to the grass land ; and I have also met with it at an altitude of at least 11,000 feet amongst the
snow ; but I may remark that I never saw any but solitary males there. I have often seen a male
standing motionless amongst the grass, or on a stone, for hours together, whilst some sis or seven
others were scattered concealed amongst the surrounding scrub ; and though I have racked my
brain to think what could possibly be the use of this strange proceeding, I never could properly
understand it. It is not improbable that this solitary bird may be placed there as a sentinel : but
if so he always failed in his duty ; for he was always the first one shot, and my companions killed
most of the specimens they procured when in this position. Possibly the bird has not yet learnt
to regard man as its natural foe ; or perhaps it takes up its position thus to more easily watch
the movements of the females. Be it as it may, there must be some valid reason for the bird
sitting so long in this stationary position. The flight of the male is audible at some distance^
the sound resembling an agreeable whistling. With the aid of my dog I found one nest. It
was situated at the foot of a rock, which afforded shelter from the rain ; the hollow was slight,
and lined with dry grass. This nest contained ten eggs.

221

" I made a post-mortem examination of a male in the spring ; the crop contained Triticum
repens, a great many blossoms of the ranunculus, and some twenty hymenopterous insects, all of
one species. The crop of a male which I killed in the autumn was empty, whilst that of a
female contained five blossoms of Taraxacum, a little grass, and some leaves of different sorts.
With the exception of the shepherds, no one in the country is acquainted with these birds ; and
the native hunter does not care to expend his powder on such insignificant game, preferring to
save it for deer and ibex, which abound and afford both flesh and leather, and also to destroy
the wolves and bears. This bird is in their eyes of no more value than a sparrow ; and their
astonishment was great indeed at seeing us so earnestly occupied in the pursuit of such game.
Notwithstanding this, the bird is known by different names in different districts. The Lerzgines
call it Ryezta, the Touhines Roczo, the Tartars Kara-touch (blackfowl) or Mesza-touch (wood-
fowl).

" Shooting these birds with either pointer or setter is next to impossible in the mountains,
where the walking is excessively heavy, and where you cannot always follow the dog, let alone
the difficulty of shooting flying whilst standing in an awkward and not unfrequently a dangerous
position. It also often happens that one cannot get within shot of a tree upon which one finds
the Grouse ' treed ' and quietly watching the dog as he keeps barking at him. When the bird
is thus hunted and 'treed' by a dog, it always allows the gunner to come within easy range, so
as to ensure his killing it. The bird is so little afraid of man that my companion, after shooting
the male out of a tree, has also secured the female with which he was in company, she having
only flown a few paces further on and perched again, allowing him time to reload whilst she sat
there, and he then shot her down. This sport (?) is best in the spring, without a dog ; for one
can see the birds at a great distance amongst the herbage, which is neither high nor dense at
that season, whereas in the autumn shooting the present species is much more difficult, as it is
by no means easy to find the birds amongst the high grass-tufts, which are, moreover, very
slippery."

I am indebted to Count Casimir Branicki for an egg of the present species, and have seen
three others sent by him to this country. They all resemble the eggs of the common Black
Grouse in general character, but have a much lighter, indeed almost ochreous white, ground-
colour, and are less boldly marked, the markings being also paler. In size they do not differ
from the average run of black-game eggs.

The specimens figured and described are the types of the species, and are now in the Museum
at Warsaw.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, j ad. Lagodechi, Russian Georgia (Mlokosiewics) .

E Mus. Wars,
a. d ad., b, ?. Lagodechi (M.).

2a2

5 «

os b

CO

DC ,

223

TETEAO UROGALLUS.

(CAPERCAILLIE.)

Tetrao urogallus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 274 (1766).

Le Tetras, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. ii. p. 239 (1772).

Tetrao major, C. L. Brehm, Naturg. Deutschl. p. 503, " Germany " (1831).

Tetrao maculatus, id. torn. cit. p. 504, " Renthendorf " (1831).

Tetrao crassirostris, id. torn. cit. p. 504, "Karnthen" (1831).

Tetrao maculatus, id. Vogelfang, p. 260, " Scandinavia " (1855).

Tetrao urogallus crassirostris (Br.), Olph-Galliard, Cab. Journ. 1860, p. 391, " Switzerland."

Urogallus maculatus (Br.), id. torn. cit. p. 392, " Switzerland."

Cog de bruyere et Poule de bruyere, French ; Auerhahn and -huhn, German ; Tiur ( cJ ), Rqj ( 2 ),
Norwegian ; Tjdcler, Swedish ; Glouhar (3), Kopoluha ( 2 ), Russian ; Suer (d), Bos-suer ( 2 ),
Bashkir ; Chuckche (<3), Kon-dozmer ( $ ), Ziranin (Sabanaeff).

Figures notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. pi. 73 (<J), 74 ($); Werner, Atlas, Gallinaces, pi. 2; Fritsch, Vog.
Eur. taf. xxvi. figs. 3, 4 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. xxxii. fig. 2 ; Gould, Birds of Eur.
pi. 248 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 154, 155 ; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. tav. 108.

d ad. capite et collo saturate griseis nigro vermiculatis : dorso, scapularibus et tectricibus alarum rufescenti-
bruimeis nigro vermiculatis : uropygio et supracaudalibus nigris grisescente albido vermiculatis, his
albido apicatis : Cauda nigra, plumis nonnullis medialiter albido notatis : remigibus saturate fulvis, in
pogonio externo ferrugineo marmoratis, secundariis fulvidis, ad basin nigro et versus apicem albido
vermiculatis et albido apicatis : subtus niger, mento purpurascente nitente : pectore conspicue viridi
nitente et imo vix griseo vermiculato : abdomine albido notato : tibia? et tarsi plumis pallide brunneis,
illis albido terminatis : subcaudalibus nigris, albo notatis et apicatis : subalaribus nigricantibus, griseo
vermiculatis et albido terminatis, nonnullis albidis : rostro albicante corneo : pedibus brunneis : iride
brunnea.

2 ad. capite, collo et corpore suprk pallide ferrugineis, nigro transfasciatis, plumis nonnullis albido apicatis :
remigibus fulvis, in pogonio externo ferrugineo marmoratis : secundariis fulvidis, ferrugineo marmoratis
et albido apicatis : tectricibus alarum dorso concoloribus et rufescente isabellino apicatis : cauda et
supracaudalibus ferrugineis, nigro transfasciatis et marmoratis et albido terminatis : subtus pallide
ochrascenti-ferruginea : pectore vix nigro guttato : abdomine indistincte nigro transfasciato, plumis
albido apicatis : crisso et tarsi plumis albidis : subcaudalibus ochrascenti-ferrugineis, nigro notatis et
albido apicatis : subalaribus albis, nigro notatis : rostro brunnescenti-corneo.

Adult Male (St. -Petersburg market). Head and neck dark slaty grey, each feather narrowly and irregularly
barred with black ; feathers on the chin black, glossed with purple, and much elongated ; back, sca-
pulars, and wing-covcrts dark reddish brown, narrowly vermiculated with black ; rump and upper taii-

224

coverts black, vermiculated with greyish white, the latter tipped with white ; tail rounded, black, some
of the feathers marked with white in the centre ; quills dull brown, marbled with light sandy brown on
the outer web ; secondaries dull brown at the base, otherwise rufous brown, vermiculated with black,
except at the tip, where they are vermiculated with white, and finally tipped with pure white ; breast
and underparts generally black, the breast richly glossed with green ; lower part of the breast imper-
ceptibly vermiculated with grey ; abdomen marked with large white blotches ; feathers about the vent
and lower part of the abdomen loose and hairy, white towards the terminal portion,, those on the thighs
and tarsi brown, the former tipped with white ; under tail-coverts black, marked and tipped with white ;
under wing-coverts blackish, vermiculated with grey, and tipped with white, some grey, tipped with
white, others pure white; beak whitish horn; feet dull brown; iris brown. Total length 3 feet,
culmen 2 - 5, wing 14"8, tail 1T0, tarsus 30.

Adult Female (St. -Petersburg market) . Head, neck, and upper parts generally light ferruginous, barred
with jet-black, many of the feathers having a white tip; quills dull brown, on the outer web marbled
with pale rufous ; secondaries tipped with white, the inner ones marbled closely on both webs with
ferruginous; wing-coverts similar to the back, but tipped with pale reddish cream-colour; tail and
upper tail-coverts bright reddish, almost fox-red, barred and marbled with black, and broadly tipped
with white ; chin, sides of the head, and breast pale rufous, spotted only here and there with black on
the lower part of the neck ; rest of the underparts pale rufous, here and there barred with black, and
many of the feathers so broadly tipped with white as to give a whitish appearance ; feathers round the
vent and on the tarsi almost pure white; under tail-coverts pale rufous, tipped with white, and here
and there marked with black; under wing-coverts white, marked with black; bill dull horn-brown,
paler at the edges of the mandibles and the base of the lower mandible. In size much smaller than the
male, measuring total length 26"0 inches, wing 12'0, tail 7 - 5, tarsus 2 - 5.

Young in down (Sweden). Upper parts dark sulphur-yellow, washed here and there with rufous, and marked
with black, especially on the crown ; wings dull brown, tipped with rufous cream, and crossed by two
bars of that colour ; underparts sulphur-yellow, on the breast washed with rufous.

Barren Female assuming the male plumage (Christiania, November 14th, 1871). Head and neck much greyer
and paler than in the adult male, most of the feathers being as in the female plumage at the base, but
tipped with grey as in that of the male ; wings and rump as in the male plumage, but more rusty in
colour ; tail black, tipped with white, and irregularly marbled, especially towards the base, with rufous ;
feathers on the sides of the head, throat, and breast rufous at the base, barred with black, and broadly
tipped with grey, those on the chin only very slightly marked with blackish ; rest of the underparts
rufous at the base, then black, and finally broadly terminated with whitish ; feathers on the thighs and
tarsi as in the male plumage.

Obs. The barren females differ a good deal, and are sometimes almost identical with the adult male in
plumage, though easily distinguishable by their much smaller size. Mr. F. Bond possesses one in this
plumage, which he purchased in Leadenhall market, where I also saw it in the flesh.

Of the hybrid between the Capercaillie and Blackcock, of which I treat further on, I have three specimens
from Norrland, obtained through my friend Mr. Meves, and one from Roraas, in Norway, obtained by
Mr. R. Collett on the 16th December, 1871, all males. This last specimen I have figured on an extra
Plate, with the barren female described above ; and as a description may be useful, I give it as follows: —

Head and neck black, on the crown and upper part of the neck with dark bottle-green reflections, and on
the lower part of the neck glossed with rich purple ; back and rump black, here and there indistinctly
vermiculated with grey ; upper tail-coverts rather more vermiculated with grey and brown, and tipped

225

with grey ; wings as in the male Capercaillie, but the secondaries have the basal portion white, and the
wing-coverts are much darker ; tail forked, the outer feathers graduated and slightly inclined to curve
outwards, in colour jet-black, except at the base, where it is white, and the central feathers are narrowly
tipped with that colour ; underparts black, on the throat and breast richly glossed with purple ; feathers
about the vent white at the tip, black at the base ; under tail-coverts black, marked with pure white ;
Under wing-coverts nearly pure white.
The female " Rackelfogel," or hybrid, is not unlike the Greyhen, and is not unfrequently mistaken for her.
It may, however, always be distinguished by the form of the tail, which is square at the end, not
rounded as in the female Capercaillie, or forked as in the Greyhen ; and the under tail-coverts do not,
as in the latter, reach to the end of the tail. Mr. Lloyd, in his ' Gamebirds and Wildfowl of Sweden/
gives woodcuts of the tails of the three females, clearly showing the distinguishing characters.

This magnificent Grouse, the largest of its family, is found throughout Northern Europe,
extending to Central Europe, and is even met with in the forests on the mountain-ranges in the
southern or southern-central portions of the Western Palsearctic region. Formerly it is said to
have been common throughout Great Britain, but has in most parts been long extinct. Though
some forty years ago it was almost extinct in Scotland, it is now, thanks to the exertions of
Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, firmly reestablished in that country ; and Mr. Robert Gray writes
that in the counties of " Perthshire and Forfarshire it breeds extensively, and has become so
firmly established that proprietors of the forests in which it is found do not now object to its
falling to the sportsman's gun. In some places, indeed, it has been thought prudent to thin the
Capercaillies where they have become numerous. Mr. Geike, factor to the Earl of Airlie, lately
informed me that he has seen as many as fifteen brace killed in a day by one shooting-party.
These birds are also abundant on the estate of the Earl of Breadalbane, where of late years they
have increased to a great extent. Stray birds are often seen in the counties adjacent to the two
just mentioned. Numbers are sent to the Glasgow poulterers; but, from the rankness of their
flesh, they are not much esteemed for the table — a quality which in these degenerate poaching-
days must materially lessen the chances of their destruction."

Mr. Lloyd, the well-known sportsman and naturalist, who was instrumental in the reintro-
duction of the Capercaillie into Scotland, gives the particulars in the following words : — " In the
autumn of 1836 the late Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, then recently returned from Taymouth
Castle, where he had been much struck with the great capabilities of the woods for the naturali-
zation of the Capercaillie, took up the affair in good earnest, and, as with every thing else in
which his energetic mind was engaged, with the determination of carrying it through if possible.
' Influenced by the desire, in which I am sure you will concur,' so he wrote to me, ' to introduce
these noble birds into Scotland, coupled with that of making Lord Breadalbane some return for
his recent kindness to me, I request you to procure for his lordship, at whatever cost, the
requisite number.' He at the same time placed his head keeper at my disposal — no slight
sacrifice for a Norfolk game-preserver. It was, indeed, an onerous commission, as prior to this
time it had been a matter of difficulty to procure even a brace of living Capercali in Sweden ;
but by distributing placards throughout the country offering ample rewards, and by instructing
the peasants how to knot their snares so as not to kill the birds, my object was at length gained,
and within a few months of the receipt of the Baronet's letter, twenty-nine Capercali, followed

3e

226

up shortly by twenty more, were on their way from Sweden to Taymouth Castle ; and, with the
exception of a single one killed by accident, all reached their destination in safety.

" The arrival of this magnificent collection in Scotland created quite a sensation ; every one
was delighted that matters had thus far gone well, and no one more so than Sir Fowell, who
addressed to me a letter on the occasion, somewhat too complimentary for publication. Again,
in September 1837, not very long after the arrival of the first batch of twenty-nine, he wrote me
as follows: — 'I have just returned from Taymouth, where I have been reminded of you very
frequently by the Capercali. I saw eighteen of them in excellent health and plumage a few
days ago ; the other ten, six hens and four cocks, were turned out ; and there is reason to hope
they are doing well ; so that, thanks to your energy in collecting them, Larry's care in bringing
them over, and Lord Breadalbane's anxiety for their welfare, our experiment is likely, I trust, to
succeed, and Scotland to be restocked with this noble bird. They are greatly admired by every

one, and very deep interest is felt for them Nothing can surpass the woods into which they

are to be turned out, and the protection they will receive,' the writer goes on to say ; ' and as
Lord Breadalbane's territory is so large, I hope they will not be disposed to leave such excellent
quarters.'

" Sir Fowell's anticipations as to the success of the experiment, owing to the good manage-
ment of Lord Breadalbane, were fully realized, as will be seen by the accompanying note from
his Lordship to myself, dated 11th October, 1841 (that is, some five years after the introduction
of the birds into Scotland) : —

" ' I have great pleasure in informing you that the Capercali have thriven most excellently.
The experiment of putting the eggs under the Greyhen was attended with perfect success, and
there are now a goodly number of these birds hereabouts.'

" It is very satisfactory to add that the Capercali have subsequently flourished in the High-
lands in an extraordinary manner. Less than four years ago, indeed, Lord Breadalbane himself
told me he imagined there were then fully one thousand of the birds on the Taymouth property.
His head keeper, moreover, in a letter to a friend, estimated them at double that number."

Scandinavia and Northern Russia are now the head quarters of the Capercaillie, and it is
there common. In Norway, Mr. Collett writes, " it is chiefly met with in the wooded portions
of the eastern provinces, or ' stifts,' where it breeds abundantly from Smaalehnene upwards to
Alten (70°), where I found it myself not uncommon in the summer of 1872 ; in Finmark proper
it has also been met with, but sparingly, as at Karasjok, where a male specimen was shot on the
roof of the village church in January 1872. It ranges also as far north in South Varanger.
Along the western coast it is found in less numbers. Thus its distribution coincides with the
limits of the fir (Pinus sylvestris) in a horizontal and vertical direction.

" Every winter I have met with sterile female individuals, which to a greater or less extent
had assumed the garb of the male. It is obvious that the reason of this sterility cannot always
be old age, several of these females having been young birds ; and in the latter a diseased state of
the ovarium must be the true cause. The most remarkable example of this kind I found in the
game-market of Christiania, October 18th, 1872. In dress, not in size (total length 655 millims.),
it exhibited so striking a resemblance to an old and fully coloured male as to be with difficulty
distinguished from one. As in all probability very few individuals are characterized by such a

227

dress, and as it is scarcely possible for any individual to approach closer to the male bird in
appearance, the sterile females can probably always be distinguished from the males by the
following peculiarities of plumage : — the beard-like feathers on the throat speckled with white,
bill dark, tail finely speckled with greyish red (without the large white spots of the male
Capercaillie)."

Sundevall gives its range in Sweden as extending as far north as the pine-woods grow ; and
Pastor Sommerfelt states that it breeds in South Varanger, and is occasionally met with in the
autumn on the Tana. I met with it in Finland in almost every part of the country I visited,
and frequently saw them when travelling through the northern. portion and driving along the
forest roads. In Russia, especially in the Government of Archangel it is very numerous, and
vast numbers are sent to the St. -Petersburg market every season. Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that
it is especially numerous in the Governments of Vladimir, Tver, and Smolensk, and the forests
in the northern part of the Government of Perm.

In some parts of Germany it is still not uncommon ; Borggreve states that " it is a resident
in North Germany, and until quite lately was to be met with in all the large forests ; it is still
found in Silesia, the Thuringer Wald, and in Westphalia (Sauerland), rarer in the Harz, and
tolerably common in the mountains of the Weser and the Westerwald. There have been none
in the mountains on the left bank of the Rhine for the last fifteen years. On the plains a few
still are to be met with in the Gorlitzer Stadtwald and a few of the larger forests in Upper
Silesia, Prussia, and Pomerania." Mr. A. von Homeyer states that in 1868 the official records
of the foresters of the Gorlitzer forest stated that seventy-six "drumming" cocks were counted
there in the spring. According to Tobias it breeds near Carolath and Primkenau; and Pastor
Passler records it as breeding annually in the forests of the Ramberg (Anhalt). In Denmark it
is now quite extinct. Sir John Lubbock, in his paper on the " Danish Kjokkenmoddings," pub-
lished in the 'Nat. Hist. Review,' 1861, draws attention to the fact that the remains of the
Capercailzie (Tetrao urogallus) are found in these rubbish-heaps of the ancient inhabitants of
Denmark. Its absence from that country at the present day points to an interesting change in
the flora and fauna of that part of Europe, the extensive pine-forests that must have afforded food
and shelter to this bird having given place to the beech and other hard-wood growth.

In Holland and Belgium it seems to be almost extinct ; but, according to Degland and Gerbe,
it is still found in some of the wooded districts in the latter country, and also " occurs in the
mountain-forests of the French Vosges and Pyrenees and the Jura ; but it is doubtful if it still
exists in the mountains of Auvergne." Delarbre records it as having been seen early in the
present century in the Noriche and the Catelade, near Oliergues, in the forest of Menet, in
Auvergne, and in those of Mont-Dore. Formerly it must have been met with in the south of
France, as M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, in his great work on the fossil birds of France, records
remains of this species as having been found in the bone-caverns. Regarding its occurrence in
Spain, Lord Lilford writes as follows : — " I have heard on unquestionable authority that it is by
no means uncommon in certain suitable localities in the provinces of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia*
and is known as ' Faisan ' and ' Gallo de Bosque.' I could not find out that it was known on the
Spanish side of the Pyrenees, in Aragon, during my visit to that district in 1867, though it
undoubtedly exists on the French side."

3k2

228

6

It still inhabits Switzerland, in some parts of which country it is not uncommon. Mr. Olph
Galliard records it as " tolerably common in the mountains near Boll (canton Friburg), especially
on the Berra. It is, however, not a true Alpine species, is not found in the Breyerz valley, nor
on the mountains near Zaun ; but it descends, though rarely, on the plains near Boll." In Italy
it is found only in the high mountains, being met with, according to Savi, in those of the Savoy
and the Veronese Alps. It is found even in Greece, where, according to Lindermayer, it is
" tolerably common, and breeds in the forests of Akarnania," and is still to be met with in many
parts of Southern Germany. Dr. A. Fritsch records it as " common in the large forests of
Bohemia, and found in the woods of Dobrichovic, near Prague;" and my friend the late
Mr. Seidensacher informed me that it inhabits the Bacher Mountains in Styria.

Count Wodzicki states that it is tolerably common in the Hungarian and Galician Carpa-
thians, as high as 4000 feet above the sea-level ; and Messrs. Elwes and Buckley write that they
"believe that this bird is found in the pine-forests of the Balkan Mountains," though they have
" no positive evidence as to its existence there." Professor von Nordmann states that it does not
inhabit the Caucasus, and is rare in Southern Russia, being only met with in the wooded portions
of North-east Bessarabia.

To the eastward the Capercaillie extends far into Asia ; but in the eastern portion of Siberia
it appears to be very generally replaced by a smaller race, named by Professor von Middendorff
Tetrao urogalloides. Professor Sundevall, who has gone carefully into the question as to whether
this latter is a really distinct and valid species, inclines to the opinion that it may be a barren
hen which has assumed the male plumage. I myself have not been able to examine a specimen
of this smaller race or species, and am therefore unable to speak with any degree of authority
on this question. Mr. Sabanaeff records T. urogalloides, Midd., as occurring in the Ural; but
Mr. Meves points out to me that the bird he refers to is not that race, but the hybrid between
the Blackcock and Capercaillie hen, and that the species found there is the Common European
Capercaillie. Von Middendorff met with the present species at Krasnoyarsk ; and Dr. Radde
observed it in the valley of the Irkut, whereas in the Apfel Mountains he only met with T. uro-
galloides, Midd. In the market of Irkutsk he only found T. urogallus. He met with it
breeding near Lake Baikal, and on the 9th and 17th of July he observed scarcely fledged young.
In the Eastern Sajan, at an altitude of 4000 feet, where the black game were entirely absent,
this species was not rare.

The Capercaillie of Kamtchatka is said to be T. urogalloides, Midd. ; and Mr. Swinhoe
records a Capercaillie from China which may be that or the present species.

In its habits I have usually found the Capercaillie more a frequenter of the large forests
than the black game are. I found it, however, common in the second-growth woods near
Uleaborg, in the north of Finland, and saw them there during the pairing-season, when, lacking
large trees, they used some of the smaller trees for their "lek;" and it was easy to distinguish
those which had been used for that purpose, as the tops were bent down by the weight of the
birds. I have seen but little of the breeding-habits of this species, and therefore cannot do
better than transcribe the notes published by that most zealous sportsman Mr. Lloyd, as follows: —
" The ' lelc-tid,' or pairing-season, with these birds usually commences towards the end of March
or beginning of April, the time more or less depending on the mildness or severity of the

229

weather, the state of the snow, &c, and continues until the middle of May, or, it may be, the end
of that month. The ' lek-stalle^ or locality where affairs matrimonial are carried on, is commonly
a wooded eminence near a morass, tarn, or other opening in the forest — sometimes, however,
though not frequently, ' on a level rock with fir trees growing in and about it.' The ' lek-stalle '
is generally of some extent ; and the Capercali resort to it year after year, unless the trees have
been felled, or the forest otherwise disturbed.

" The oldest or strongest male (or males, as the case may be) is the first in the spring at
the ' lek-stalle ;' and in the more northern forests, even when the snow is deep on the ground, he
commences his spel, either on the surface of the snow, on which one often sees the marks of his
trailing wings where he has paraded to and fro, or perched upon the upper branch of a pine.
At such times his neck is stretched out, his wings droop, his feathers are ruffled up, and his tail
spread out in the manner of a fan, as depicted in the illustration sketched by Mr. Wilhelm von
Wright.

" The spel of the Capercali, which consists, so to say, of three notes, is of a rather singular
nature. An attempt, though an imperfect one, has been made to imitate it by the following
words, viz. : — First note, Pellep ! Pellep ! Pellep ! Second note, Klickop ! Third note, Hede !
Hede! Hede! Hede! The first note, Pellep, called kndppingen (pi. kndppingar), is said to
resemble the sound of two dry sticks struck together. The second, Klickop, named klunken,
has been likened to a sort of gulp in the throat, the noise made when the tongue is smacked
against the palate, or when a cork is drawn out of a bottle. The third, Hede, termed sisningen,
has been compared to the sucking-in of the breath, as it were, or the sound caused by
sharpening an edged tool on a whetstone. The giving utterance to these several notes may
altogether occupy from two to three minutes; and, provided the bird be not in any way
disturbed, he almost immediately afterwards commences repeating them, and continues to do so
almost without ceasing.

" His spel is not loud, and, if there be wind stirring at the time, cannot be heard (at least
by the inexperienced) at any considerable distance. In the most favourable weather, indeed, it
is not audible at more than one hundred and fifty to two hundred paces.

" Between the kndppingar, the first note of his spel, there is usually at the commencement
some little interval ; but presently these follow so close on each other as to be all but continuous.
Whilst the kndppingar last the bird is wide awake, and not unfrequently turns his head from
side to side, as if to look out for the enemy ; and this, to a certain extent, is also the case when
he sounds his second note, klunken. But during his third and last note, sisningen, his head is
thrown backwards, his neck moves to and fro, wave-fashion ; his expanded tail stands at some-
thing like right angles to his body, and froth issues from his mouth. He is worked up into
such an agony of passion, as to be all but unconscious of what is passing around him. Many,
indeed, assert he is then both deaf and blind ; and it is at this critical moment, as will be shortly
shown, that so many of these noble birds fall to the gun.

"The exertion during the spel has an extraordinary physical effect upon the Capercali, as is
evidenced by the frequency and abundance of his droppings ; and during his last note, sisningen,
when, as is said, he is worked up into a state of ecstasy, he trembles to such a degree that even
the pine, however large, on which he is perched, sensibly vibrates to the touch !

230

8

" On hearing the spel of the cock, the hens assemble at the ' lek-stalle ' from all parts of the
surrounding district, and alight either on the very tree where he is perched, or other trees in the
immediate vicinity, when they make their presence known by their somewhat melancholy lackton,
or call-note, resembling in a degree the words Gock ! Gock ! Gock ! or rather, perhaps, the croak of
the raven.

"A little before sunrise, the cock usually descends from his perch and alights on some open
spot in the forest close by, where the hens (as seen in the accompanying drawing) collect about
him ; and here, during the intervals of his spel, which he still continues, and whilst parading
amongst the ladies of his harem, he pairs with each in succession.

" Immense excitement is then exhibited, not only by the male but also the female. The
latter may be seen, with outstretched neck and hurried movements, flitting round and round her
lord, as if challenging his notice, till at length, approaching more boldly, she nestles close beside
him and solicits attentions which his gallantry ultimately accords. Indeed, so absorbing is the
love of the female Capercali during the pairing-season that hens, whose mates have been shot,
have been found lying on the ground in a state of excitement, and at the same time giving
utterance to the plaintive call-note by which they were wont to lure him to pairing ; and so
abstracted, moreover, as actually to allow themselves to be taken by the naked hand.

"Several cocks, old and young, not unfrequently congregate at the same ' lek-stalle;'' but so
long as the old birds live, the young, or those of the preceding season, are not allowed to spel —
and should they venture so to do, are pretty sure of getting what Brother Jonathan calls ' badly
whipped.' But when the old birds are shot, the young ones, after the lapse of a day or two,
commence ; and occasionally several may be heard at their spel at the same time ; and then, as
M. Greiff says, ' it goes gloriously.'

" Early in the pairing-season, when the male for the most part is quite alone, he does not
spiel regularly or with much animation, merely giving expression to a few straggling notes ; but
when at an after-period the females make their appearance at the 'lek-stalle' he ' opens his pipes,'
as has been quaintly observed, ' in right good earnest.' ' When the Woodcock rodes, the frogs
croak in the marshes, the Snipe drums in the air, and the dung-beetle buzzes about one's ears,'
the Capercali is said to spel best. Commonly he holds his spel from daybreak to sunrise, and
from a little after sunset until quite dark. The length of time greatly depends on the state of
the weather and the season of the year. When the spring is far advanced, indeed, he not
unfrequently continues his spel throughout the greater part of the night.

" During calm and misty weather, the spel of the Capercali is most animated. Even during
a regular downfall of rain or sleet, unless accompanied by a high wind, he carries it on.
Ekstrom mentions having on one occasion shot a Capercali at the 'lek-stalle' whose sides were
altogether white with wet snow, which had fastened amongst his feathers. If the weather be
extremely cold, his sp>el is either dull or he ceases altogether, and, as surmised, for this reason,
that the froth, which at such times exudes from his bill, becomes congealed, and prevents him
from expressing his notes.

" The period when the Capercali discontinues his spel depends much on the season ; for, if
forward, he begins early and concludes early ; but if, on the contrary, the spring be backward
the reverse is the case. As a general rule ' sportsmen consider his spel ended when the leaves

231

of the mountain-ash are as large as the bird's own foot ; ' but in parts of the country the peasants
entertain the notion that the cessation of his spel is dependent on other causes than the state of
the weather. They say that ' every time he holds his spel he plucks away one of the homy scales
growing about his toes, and that it is not until they are all gone that his spel terminates.'

" The Capercali occasionally strikes up a few notes about Michaelmas ; but his spel at that
time is not of long continuance. I myself never then heard him spel ; but many a chasseur has
assured me that they have shot him whilst in full play. The Jagmastare Lindberg tells us,
indeed, that he himself has known more than twenty cocks to be thus shot in the autumn — the
greater part of them in September, but some also in October. Why the Capercali should spel
at this time of the year is matter of speculation with many in Sweden. M. Grieff suggests it
may be for the purpose of showing the young birds the situation of the ' lek-stdlle.'

" During the pairing-season the Capercali is very pugnacious ; and fierce combats are then
common between the rival males. These always take place on the ground, and for the most
part on some little eminence, free from brushwood or other obstruction. The birds when
charging each other spring high in the air in the manner of game-cocks; and whilst striking
with their wings, tear one another with their claws. Their bills are also brought into play ; and
he that succeeds in getting such fast hold of his opponent as to pin him to the ground, in which
position he punishes him severely, usually comes off the victor. Whilst the fight lasts (and it is
often of long continuance), the combatants not unfrequently snap their bills together with great
force, the noise of which, together with that caused by the blows inflicted with their wings, may,
in clear and calm weather, be heard at a very considerable distance.

" During these duels the birds are not unfrequently so blinded by rage as to be altogether
forgetful of their own safety ; and if due precaution be used they may be captured by the hand,
of which more than one instance is on record.

" ' Some years ago,' says Ekstrom, ' a servant of mine, in company with another man, left
home one spring morning to cut wood in the forest. When arrived there they saw two Capercali
cocks fighting desperately on a rising ground. Neither of the men having a gun or other weapon,
my servant at once sprang forward and threw himself on the combatants ; but his comrade being
somewhat timid did not come to his aid, and he was only able to retain one of the birds, which
he brought home to me.'

"When the pairing-season is over, or even previously, the females retire to their several
breeding-grounds. These comprise not only the great pine-forests of the lowlands, but those
clothing the lower slopes of the fjalls. We are told, indeed, by M. Barth, that ' on two occa-
sions, during the autumn of 1862, he met with broods of Capercali in small patches of willow on
the high fjalls themselves, and at a considerable distance above the last birch tree.'

" The female makes her nest (which is a mere hole scraped in the ground) under a tree or
bush. The eggs, numbering from five or six to twelve or fifteen, according, as it is believed, to
the age of the bird, are of a dirty yellow colour, marked with light-brown spots and blotches.
In length they are 2yg- inches, and in thickness If inch.

" The period of incubation is said to be a month. The young, usually hatched about the
beginning of June, keep with the mother until towards the approach of winter, or even longer ;
but the cock separates from her at a much earlier period."

/C<sS> tCi

10

In my collection I have a series of eggs of the Capercaillie, chiefly obtained by myself near
Uleaborg, in Finland, which in size vary from 2^g- by lf^ to 2\% by If § inch, and in colour
from pale dull yellow, spotted and blotched with yellowish rufous spots of large and small size,
distributed all over the surface of the egg, to rufous yellow, so closely spotted with pale yellowish
red spots as almost to give the egg the appearance of being plain, unspotted, dark clay-colour.

When hatched, Mr. Collett informs me, the young birds are at first fed almost exclusively
on small soft-bodied insects ; but they soon leam to feed themselves, and pick up small seeds and
other vegetable matter. He examined the stomach of a young male of about the size of a
common fowl, which was shot near Christiania on the 22nd of June, 1868, and found it to
contain tops of Car ex pilulifera and pallescens, small bits of Pteris aquilina, nymphse of different
species of Myrmica, and a few Hymenoptera. In the winter season the stomachs of the old birds
have generally been found to contain coarse gravel, leaves, and berries of Vaccinium vitis-idcea,
and fir-foliage, the latter often in great quantities ; and sometimes the stomach contains nothing
but the soft buds of Pinus and Abies.

Like the black game and Ptarmigan, the Capercaillie has a tendency to hybridize ; and it
has been recorded to have paired with the common Turkey. The so-called " Rackelfogel " or
" Eakkelhane " is the best-known of the hybrids, and is by no means uncommon. Respecting
this bird Mr. R. Collett writes that " Nilsson having given such conclusive evidence of the hybrid
origin of this bird (called in the vernacular ' Rakkelhane') that the question was regarded by
naturalists as settled, he proposed Tetrao urogalloides (or urogallides) as an appropriate name
for this form. At the same time he showed from his own observations, and those of intelligent
sportsmen, that this hybrid is bred between the Blackcock and the female Capercaillie (Tetrao
tetrix <S and T. urogallus 2) — whether the connexion arises from the Blackcock repairing to
the breeding-haunts of the Capercaillie, or rather (which perhaps is more frequently the case)
from the female Capercaillie, prompted by a morbid tendency to mesalliance (so often the result
of inordinate sexual desire), consorting with black game, and pairing with the handsome and
gallant male of that species.

"True, this hybrid has been supposed by some to be the result of the male Capercaillie
mating with the Greyhen (Tetrao urogallus <S-\- tetrix 2); but the supposition has invariably
been scouted as improbable, and, indeed, no such form of hybrid has been hitherto observed.

" Nilsson's designation (Tetrao urogalloides) has been accepted by all Scandinavian naturalists,
and indeed by most others that do not hold the belief that this hybrid forms a distinct species.
The name, however, is not strictly applicable, partly because the ' Rakkelhane ' is a compound,
and not a simple species, and should therefore, as such, have a compound and not a simple
name — and partly because, as Sundevall has shown, the termination ides is calculated to impart
a wrong notion concerning the male parent, to which, in grammatical correctness, it should refer.

" Probably it was thought unnecessary to inquire further into a matter comparatively so
unimportant. But seeing that this form occurs in a wild, and only in a wild state, it would
be well to find an appropriate name whereby to give it a place in the system. In the year
1869 Sundevall proposed a change in that respect, and suggested the name of Tetrao urogallo-
tetricides, which might be regarded as satisfactory ; the termination ides, however, could surely
be dropped, partly because it is superfluous, and partly because it would prove impossible to

233

ii

apply it in analogous cases. The easiest way out of the difficulty would seem to be a simple
compound of the names of both parents, the name of the mother being subordinated to that of
the father. Thus we get the designation Tetrao urogallo-tetrix.

"Of this hybrid, a considerable number of individuals are annually procured from various
parts of the country, male examples being every winter found in Christiania among game brought
from the interior wooded districts of the south. Most of them come from Gudbrandsdal and
Osterdal and the southern portions of Trondhjem Stift, and from Thelemarken, in Christiansand
Stift. In several of these localities the hybrid origin of the bird is well known to the inhabitants.
Along the west coast it can only be produced in the most inland tracts (T. urogallus is not widely
distributed here). The most northerly point at which it has been found, or indeed can occur, is
the Balsfjord, near Tromso (69° 20'), this locality being the extreme range of one of the parents
(Tetrao tetrix).

" Of the individuals hitherto examined from Norway one only was a female ; this bird
(wing 255 millimetres, tail 113, tarsus 42, middle toe 414-13 millimetres) is preserved in the
University Museum ; the others were all males in winter plumage. I once found a young male
not fully coloured in the game-market of Christiania, Oct. 3rd, 1870.

" The ' Eakkelhane ' would appear to consort in preference with black game ; and most
individuals, of which any particulars are known, have been killed among birds of that species.
It has been recorded of one individual (Odalen, in April 1871) that it was shot in its ' spel,' in a
breeding-haunt of Capercaillie."

On the one Plate are figured the adult male in the foreground, and in the background the
adult female, and on the second Plate the barren female and the male " Rackelhane " or hybrid,
these being the specimens described, all being in my collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens :•—

E Mm. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 ad. Winter plumage, St.-Petersburg market (Dock) . b, <$ ad. Norway (Backhouse) . c, d, e, $ ad. St.-
Petersburg market; /, g, h, $ steril. St.-Petersburg market (Dode). i, 2 steril. Christiania, November
14th, 1871 (R. Collett). k,puUus. Sweden (Wheelwright).

3s

234

235

Genus TETRAOGALLUS.

Tetrao apud Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-As. ii. p. 76 (1811).

Lophophorus apud Jardine & Selby, 111. Orn. ii. p. 76 (1829).

Tetraogallus, J. E. Gray, 111. Ind. Zool. ii. pi. 46 (1833-34).

Perdix apud Fischer de Waldheim, N. Mem. Soc. Imp. Nat. Mosc. iv. p. 240 (1835).

Chourtka apud Motchoulski, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Mosc. i. p. 95 (1839),

Megaloperdix apud Brandt, Bull. Phys.-Mat. Acad. St. Petersb. i. p. 278 (1843).

Oreotetrax apud Cabanis in Ersch & Grub. Encycl. xxii. p. 144 (1848).

Tee Snow-Partridges inhabit some of the mountain-ranges of the Paleearctic Region, only
penetrating into the Oriental Region on the southern side of the Himalaya range. There are
altogether five species known, two of which, Tetraogallus caucasicus and Tetraogallus caspms,
inhabit the Western Palaearctic Region, the other three being Tetraogallus altaicus, which
inhabits the Altai range, Tetraogallus himalayensis, which is found in the Himalayas, and
Tetraogallus tibetanus, in Thibet. Although allied to the Grouse in many respects, these birds
appear to differ from them in their habits to a large extent. They frequent desolate, rocky,
precipitous places at considerable elevations in the mountains above the limits of tree-growth,
where it appears almost impossible for them to obtain subsistence ; but they certainly procure a
sufficient supply of their food there, and subsist on roots of bulbous plants, grass-shoots, moss,
and scale-fern. They are very wild and difficult of approach ; and, owing to the almost inac-
cessible places they frequent, they are comparatively seldom obtained. Their call-note is said to
be a clear prolonged whistle ending with an abrupt jerk and also a loud cackle. They breed
amongst the precipices in the high mountains, their nest being a hollow in the ground scantily
lined with grasses and a few feathers ; their eggs, which are numerous, are dull ochreous-
clay with an oil-green tinge, spotted and blotched with dull dark red ; and the young are said to
be able to run about almost immediately they leave the shell. These birds are strictly mono-
gamous, and are said to be much attached to each other when paired ; and both the male and
female assist in taking charge of the young until they are able to forage for themselves.

The type of the genus is Tetraogallus himalayensis; but as Tetraogallus caspius is con-
generic, I give its characters, as follows : — Bill rather strong, higher than broad at the base, the
culmen arched to the tip, which is rounded ; nostrils basal, large, covered by a membrane with a
semicircular opening ; an elongated bare space behind the eye ; wings moderate, pointed, the
second and third quills longest ; tail long, full, rounded ; legs strong ; tarsus rather short, stout,
covered in front with broad scales, and having behind a large, horny, spur-like lump ; hind toe
short ; anterior toes long, stout, scutellate ; claws strong, broad, rounded, slightly curved,
obtuse.

171

286

491

-' '■/;;

E.Wfiiilp. Uth.

Hanhart imp

CAUCASIAN SNOW PARTRIDGE.
FEMALE AND YOUNG

492

HaTLha-r + :rcp

CAUCASIAN SNOW PARTRIDGE.

TETRAOGALLUS CAUCASICUS.

237

TETKAOGALLUS CAUCASICUS.

(CAUCASIAN SNOW-PARTRIDGE.)

Tetrao caucasica, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso-As. ii. p. 76, and pi. (1811).

Perdix alpina, Fischer de Waldh. N. Mem. Soc. Imp. Nat. Mosc. iv. p. 240 (1835).

Chourtka alpina (Fisch.), Motchoulski, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Mosc. i. p. 95 (1839).

Tetraogallus caucasicus (Pall.), G. R. Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842, p. 105.

Perdix (Megaloperdix) caucasica (Pall.), Brandt, Bull. Phys. Mat. Acad. St.-Petersb. i. p. 278

(1843).
Oreotetrax, Cab. {Tetrao caucasica, Pall.) in Ersch & Grub. Encycl. xxii. p. 144 (1848).
Tetraogallus caspius, Gould, B. of Asia, pt. v. (1854, partim).

Megaloperdix (Tetraogallus) caspia, Bolle & Brehm, J. f. Orn. 1873, p. 1 (nee Gm.).
Oreotetrax caspia, Cab. J. f. Orn. 1873, p. 63 (nee Gm.).

Gornaya Indeika, Chourtka, Intaure, Russian.

Figure notabiles.
Pall. 1. c. ; Motchoulski, op. cit. pis. 8, 11.

cJ ad. pileo, nucha et collo postico cinereis : faciei lateribus et stria in collo utrinque cinereis, gula et collo
reliquo albis : corpore supra nigricante, cervino vermiculato : collo imo et dorso superiore immaculatis,
sed dorso reliquo, uropygio, tectricibus alarum et scapularibus maculis rufescentibus et cervinis notatis :
remigibus primariis albis nigricanti terminatis : secundariis ad basin albis, versus apicem dorso con-
coloribus; rectricibus centralibus nigris cervino-albo vermiculatis, reliquis nigris castaneo apicatis et
ad basin cervino vermiculatis : pectore et gutture imo albis nigro fasciatis : corpore reliquo subtiis
cinereo, cervino-albo vermiculato, hypochondriis magis schistaceis et castaneo nigroque striatis : sub-
caudalibus albis : rostro sordide flavido, versus apicem fusco : iride fusca : area nuda circum oculos
flava : pedibus flavo-aurantiacis.

2 ad. mari similis sed sordidior et pallidior, pileo et collo postico rufescenti tinctis, stria in colli lateribus
rufescente nee cinerea, et fasciis in pectore angustioribus.

Adult Male (Caucasus) . Crown, nape, and hind neck ashy grey ; a broad ashy grey patch covering a large
portion of each side of the head passes down the side of the neck, the throat and rest of the neck being
white ; upper parts greyish black, finely vermiculated with buff, the lower neck and fore part of the
back unspotted, the rest of the upper parts, including the wing-coverts and scapulars, marked with
large spots, partly buff and partly fox-red in colour ; primaries white, broadly terminated with blackish,
secondaries white at the base, otherwise marked like the back; central rectrices black, vermiculated
with buffy white, remaining tail-feathers black, tipped with chestnut-red, which is slightly vermiculated
with black, and the base of the feathers are vermiculated with buff; lower throat and breast buffy
white, closely barred with black, the bands following the contour of the feathers ; rest of the underparts
blackish ash-grey, closely vermiculated with buffy white, the flanks more slaty in tinge, each feather

238

broadly margined on each side with fox-red, and externally edged with black; under tail-coverts
white ; bill dull yellowish, becoming horn-brown towards the tip ; bare space round the eye yellow ;
iris dark brown; legs orange-yellow. Total length about 21 inches, culmen 12, wing 105, tail 7'0,
tarsus 2" 25.

Adult Female (Caucasus) . Resembles the male, but is much duller and paler in colour ; the crown and hind
neck are tinged with reddish brown, the latter especially ; the stripe down each side of the neck is
reddish brown, not ashy grey ; and the barrings on the lower throat and breast are narrower and less
clearly defined.

Young Male (Caucasus) . Resembles the female ; but the crown, hind neck, sides of the head, and stripe
down each side of the neck are dull ashy grey, marked with blackish brown, and to a slight extent
with buff.

Young in down (Caucasus) . Crown, nape, and upper parts generally buffy white, blotched with black ;
underparts buffy white, the breast and flanks washed with grey, and a black stripe down each side of
the throat, enlarging into a small patch below the eye.

Obs. Even at the present time but little is known about this species, and specimens are extremely rare in
museums. Indeed those in my own collection are the only examples I have seen here ; for there is not
one in the British Museum, nor have I, until quite recently, seen one in any private collection. Owing
to its rarity and the consequent difficulty in comparing specimens, it has been very generally confused
with the Caspian Snow-Partridge. Gould, who figures the latter species in his ' Birds of Asia/ wrongly
identifies it with the present species ; and Dr. Bree, who in his letterpress also confuses the Caucasian
and Caspian Snow-Partridges, figures in both editions a perfectly distinct Asiatic species {Tetraogallus
himalayensis) as the European bird; while Mr. G. R. Gray figures (Gen. of B. iii. pi. cxxix.) Tetrao-
gallus altaicus, a very distinct Asiatic bird, under the name of Tetraogallus caucasicus ; and in his letter-
press in the same work he unites Tetraogallus caspius, Tetraogallus caucasicus, Tetraogallus altaicus,
and Tetraogallus himalayensis — four perfectly distinct species.

This, the true Caucasian Snow-Partridge, appears to be restricted entirely to the Caucasus range
of mountains, and inhabits therefore but a restricted area. It is there found only in the more
elevated portions of the mountains, close to the snow-line, and only descends into lower altitudes
when driven down by severe weather. Comparatively little has been placed on record respecting
the habits of this bird. Motchoulski gives (I. c.) a few short details, which have been translated
and inserted in Mr. Gould's ' Birds of Asia ' and in Dr. Bree's ' Birds of Europe ;' but other
Russian authors have published very few notes respecting the habits of this magnificent bird.
Probably the best account on record is that given in a lecture by Dr. Radde, and printed in
the 'Journal fur Ornithologie ' (1873, pp. 2-C), from which I translate the following notes: —
" In the mountains, close to the line of continual snow, at an altitude of between 2000 and 3500
metres, I made acquaintance with these giant Partridges, respecting whose habits so little is
known. The Caucasian Snow-Partridge, discovered by Steven, and very early named caucasicus,
is found here in comparatively large numbers ; and the mountaineers all affirm that it lives in
peculiar friendship with the Caucasian Ibex. The bird is said to whistle in order to warn the
Ibex of the approach of the hunter ; and the Snow-Partridge feeds on the dung of the Ibex ; so
that they are in a way dependent on each other. It is, however, probable that they exist on the

239

same food ; for when one examines both to see what they have been eating, one finds that the
Ibex feeds on the various Potentilla plants which form the green patches in the mountains ; and
these low-growing plants, with their white and yellow blossoms and fruit, which bring them
botanically near to the strawberry, serve for food to the Snow-Partridge as well as the Ibex.
This fact explains why the two are found together; and, moreover, it is possible that the insects
which are found on the dung of the Ibex may attract the Snow-Partridge. . . . The lower moun-
tains which stretch in the direction of Armenia to other high ranges, are certainly not inhabited
by the Snow-Partridge ; nor is the Ibex found in the Little Caucasus. . . . The Snow-Partridge
lives strictly in pairs, and inhabits an area the size of which is scarcely known. If a pair are
disturbed, they rise uttering a peculiar shrill whistle and a clear alarm-note like the words tirok,
tirok, tirok, on hearing which other pairs in the vicinity also take wing. The flight of this
species is swift and direct, and reminded me much of that of the Little Bustard, but was not so
whistling. I cannot say if the Snow-Partridge, like the Grouse, drums in the spring ; for it is
almost impossible to visit the elevated portions of the mountains at that season. It seems,
however, certain that this bird never perches in a tree, and is altogether in its habits a gigantic
Partridge ; besides, it inhabits regions above the tree-growth. I hope, however, ere long to
gain more information about this species. It certainly breeds very early in the year. I have
never taken its eggs personally; but on the 17th April, when on a journey from Tiflis to
St. Petersburg, at a station high up in the mountains, I procured two eggs and a bird. One of
these eggs I took to London, and gave it to my dear friend Dresser, who will, I trust, ere long,
figure this species in his work. As these eggs were quite fresh when I received them, one may
take for granted that the breeding-season begins about the middle of April. This bird must lay
many eggs ; for I was fortunate enough, late in June or early in July, in the mountains, at an
altitude of about 3000 metres above the sea-level, to come suddenly, by chance, on a female with
her unfledged young. Like all the Gallinaceous birds, and especially those which, like this
species, inhabit the stone-rubble districts, the young birds were adepts at hiding and getting out
of the way ; and I was astonished to see them get up close to my feet and quickly disperse. I
tried long to catch one, grabbed first at one and then at another, and missed them, and was at
last glad enough to secure a single one. But I saw at least thirteen to fifteen, and can therefore
safely state that the coveys are about as many in number as those of allied species of Partridges.
All the natives agree that this bird is exceedingly difficult to procure, as it is so very shy that
only a skilful hunter can approach within rifle-range, and may be days in search of the bird
before getting a shot at it." Dr. Eadde adds that the natives compare this bird to the Turkey,
and consider it to be a sort of mountain-Turkey, calling it " Intaure." He has succeeded
almost every year in getting one or two alive, and says that it soon becomes accustomed to
captivity, but does not live long in confinement, and does not seem to thrive away from its
elevated habitat. Besides the old male and the egg for which I am indebted to Dr. Eaclde,
this gentleman also brought and gave me an immature male ; and I have lately received through
the well-known German dealer, Mr. W. Schluter, of Halle, another male and female (the former
of which is now in the possession of Mr. C. G. Danford) and several eggs, which Mr. Schluter
informs me were obtained by a Pole who had lately been collecting in the Caucasus.

The eggs of this species in my collection are dull light clay-buff in colour with an oil-green

240

tinge, and are somewhat sparingly spotted with dull rufous. In size they vary from 2f4 by If J
inch to 2f-§ by lf§ inch.

The specimens figured and described are those in my own collection below enumerated, the
adult and young males being on the one Plate, and the female and two young in down on the
second Plate.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

U Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, $ ad. Kazbek, Caucasus, May 1871 {Dr. G. Radcle). b, <5 juv. Kazbek {Radde). c, ? ad. Caucasus, April
1876 (W. Schliiter). d, e,pulli. Caucasus {Mlokosiewicz) .

E Mus. C. G. Danford.
a, <3 ad. Caucasus, April 1876 {W. Schliiter).

493

EJTeale Ul

Ha.Ti1i3.pt i

imp.

CASPIAN SNOW PARTRIDGE
TETRAOGALLUS CASPIUS.

241

TETKAOGALLUS CASPIUS.

(CASPIAN SNOW-PARTBIDGE.)

Tetrao casjnus, S. G. Gmel. Reis. Russl. iv. p. 67, pi. x (1784).
Perdix caspia (Gm.), Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 655 (1790).
Lojjhophorus nigelli, Jard. & Selby, 111. Orn. ii. p. 76.
Tetraogallus caspius, Gould, B. of Asia, pt. v. (1854, partim).
Tetraogallus casjnus (Gm.), Bp. Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 882 (1856).
Megaloperdix raddei, Bolle & Brehm, J. f. Orn. 1873, p. 4, footnote, desc. null.
Tetraogallus challayi, Oustalet, Bull. Soc. Philomatique, 1875, pp. 54, 56.
Tetraogallus tauricus, Dresser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1876, p. 675.
Oreotetrax caspia (Gm.), Cab. Journ. fur Orn. 1876, p. 217.

Ur-Keklik in the Taurus ; Kabk-i-dareh, Russian.

Figurce notabiles.

Wolf, Zool. Sketches, pi. 40; Gould, B. of Asia, part v.; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 31. fig. 7;
Jard. & Selby, 111. Orn. ii. pi. 76.

d ad. pileo sordide cinereo-carto vix cervino tincto, versus nucham cervino-cinereo : collo postico et dorso
antico cervino-cinereis : corpore supra reliquo sicut in Tetraogallo caucasico picturato, sed pallide
cervino-cinereo nee saturate cinereo : alis sicut in T. caucasico, sed tectricibus majoribus magis caeruleis
et ad basin minus vermiculatis : Cauda sicut in T. caucasico, sed paUidiore : fronte, stria superciliari,
capitis lateribus et gula. cervino-albis : regione suboculari pallide cana, et stria magna, in colli lateribus
utrinque saturate cana : gutture et pectore superiore cinereo-canis, plumis cinereo-cervino terminatis
et nigro guttatis : pectore rebquo cinereo-cervino, griseo-nigro vermiculato, plumis omnibus ad basin
cseruleo-canis : abdomine centrali scbistaceo-fubginoso : crisso sordide cervino, subcaudalibus cervino-
albis : bypocbondriis ceeruleo-canis, utrinque castaneo striatis et nigro marginatis, plumis nonnullis in
parte suprema vermiculatis, et plumis in parte ima cinereo-cervinis nigro-cinereo vermiculatis et cervino-
castaneo marginatis : rostro flavido, ad basin pallidiore, naribus rufo-aurantiacis : plaga nuda circum et
infra oculos laete flava, : pedibus laete rufo-aurantiacis, unguibus saturate corneis : iride fusca.

2 minor et sordidior : pileo vix cervino et saturate griseo notato : stria in colli lateribus et gutture antico nigro
notatis, hoc griseo vermiculato : plaga nuda, oculari minore : rostro et pedibus sicut in mare, sed paulo
sordidioribus.

Adult Male (Koroskeui, Taurus, 15th April, 1876). Crown dull ashy blue, with a buff tinge gradually
merging into ashy buff, this latter colour pervading the hind neck and fore part of the back ; rest of
the upper parts as in Tetraogallus caucasicus ; but instead of the general tinge of colour being clear
dark grey, it is lighter buffy grey ; wings as in Tetraogallus caucasicus, but the larger wing- coverts are
rather bluer and less vermiculated on the basal portion ; tail as in Tetraogallus caucasicus, but rather
paler ; forehead, a streak over the eye, sides of head and neck creamy white, the portion below the eye

2m

242

pale blue-grey, connected with which is a dull darker blue-grey stripe down the side of the neck;
entire lower throat and upper breast blue-grey, the feathers tipped with ashy buff, this band on the
sides of the neck becoming ashy buff and merging into the hind neck ; fore part of the band irregularly
but boldly spotted with black ; rest of the breast to the abdomen ashy buff finely vermiculated with
blackish grey, all the feathers dove-blue on the concealed basal portion ; centre of the abdomen sooty
slate, gradually fading into dull buff on the crissum and to creamy white on the under tail-coverts ;
flank-feathers clear blue-grey on the centre, with a chestnut stripe on each side, and an outside margin
of black, some of the feathers on the upper flanks vermiculated like the breast, and those on the lower
flanks buffy ash, vermiculated with blackish grey, and margined with buffy chestnut; bill yellowish
horn, paler at the base ; nostrils orange-red ; bare space round the eye and patch below the eye
brilliant Indian-yellow ; iris dark brown ; legs rich orange-red ; claws dark horn. Total length about
26 inches, culmen 1*7, wing ll - 8, tail 8"0, tarsus 2 - 6.

Adult Female (Giawikeuy, 27th April). Differs from the male in being rather smaller in size and duller in
colour; the crown is slightly marked with light buff and dark grey; the stripe on each side of the neck
and the band on the lower throat are more buff in tinge, the latter vermiculated with grey, and both
mottled with black; soft parts as in the male, but rather duller, the bare patch behind the eye smaller
in extent, and the spur on the back of the tarsus is wanting. Total length 22"5-23 inches, culmen T4,
wing 10-7, tail 7-2, tarsus 2 - 25.

As stated in my article on Tetraogallus caucasicus, there has been great confusion as regards the
Snow-Partridges, and most authors have erroneously considered the present species to be identical
with Tetraogallus caucasicus. First described (I. c.) by Gmelin from Gilan, it was again described
and figured by Jardine and Selby (I. c.) from the same locality ; but both descriptions are some-
what vague, the latter being taken from a young bird. When Dr. Radde paid me a visit some
time ago he assured me that there were two species of Snow-Partridge within the limits of the
Western Palsearctic Region; and Dr. Severtzoff also discussed the matter with me when here,
and we agreed to try and work the question out ; and Mr. Danford, who was then preparing to
undertake a journey through Asia Minor, promised to try and obtain specimens. When Dr.
Severtzoff was in Paris he saw in the Paris Museum a Snow-Partridge from Erzeroum, which he
at once perceived was neither Tetraogallus caucasicus nor Tetraogallus himalayensis ; and he
called the attention of M. Oustalet to it, surmising that it would prove to be the second species
supposed to occur in Asia Minor. M. Oustalet, on the strength of what Dr. Severtzoff told him,
described the bird as new under the name of Tetraogallus challayii ; but of this I was unaware,
as the description was published in a journal which I had not had an opportunity of seeing.
When, therefore, Mr. Danford brought back a series of specimens which I failed to identify with
either Gmelin's or Jardine and Selby's descriptions, I concluded that it was an undescribed
species, and gave it the name of Tetraogallus tauricus ; but subsequently Mr. Danford ascer-
tained, by a comparison of his specimens with the bird figured by Jardine and Selby, which is
now at Edinburgh, that the birds occurring in Persia and in the Taurus are specifically identical.
The correct name of these birds will therefore be Tetraogallus caspius.

Mr. Danford has just prepared an account of this species for publication in 'The Ibis,' and
has kindly permitted me to make use of the same ; I have therefore transcribed it as follows : —
"The range" of T. caspius, " though already known to be pretty wide, is not yet fully determined.

243

Its probable western limits are the Gok, or Geyee, Mountains of Southern Asia Minor. Thence
it extends eastward through the rest of the Taurus into Armenia, Kurdistan, and Northern
Persia, as far as the south-east corner of the Caspian. It is also reported to occur in the Dinar
Mountains, in the south-west of Persia.

" Though by no means uncommon in the rocky ranges of Cilicia, the Snow-Partridge is,
owing to its extreme wariness, and the difficult character of the ground it frequents, a very hard
bird to obtain. So shy is it, that the natives say it takes the wind of a man like an ibex. The
coveys in summer time are doubtless more easy of approach than the adult birds.

" This species frequents in winter the regions just above the limits of the tree-growth, rarely
descending, unless in exceptionally severe weather; and even then it usually takes to the holes
and caves with which the limestone rocks abound. From the sheltered interstices of these rocks
it gets its food, which at this season consists, not, as some writers say, of the droppings of the
wild goats, or, as the natives often asserted, of snow and stones, but of bulbous roots, young
grass-blades, moss, and quantities of the common scale-fern (Ceterach officinarum). The young,
no doubt, after the manner of most game birds, feed much on insects. The above diet seems to
agree well with these birds, as females shot in March and April were covered with fat, males
less so. They are good eating, more like the common Grey Partridge than any thing else. The
weight of a large male was 7-| lb., that of a female 6 lb.

" The Snow-Partridge pairs very early, certainly as soon as the beginning of February ; but
it is not until the end of March that the males begin calling. The call-note is a full, clear,
prolonged whistle, ended with an abrupt jerk. It is audible at a great distance, and is not
difficult to imitate. The other cry which this species possesses is a loud cackle, uttered only by
the male. It is begun when the bird is disturbed, and is kept up during the whole time of its
flight, which is sometimes pretty long, and is best compared to that of the Ptarmigan. On
alighting the performance is often wound up by a whistle. The natives imitate these notes by
the syllables luJc-lulc-luk-luk booooo. This bears about as much likeness to the natural notes of
the bird as such imitations usually do on paper, which, except in the case of very simple-noted
birds, appears to me to be remarkably small. The transcribing of complicated bird-notes
depends so much upon the taste and fancy of the speller, that two interpretations of a bird-song
very rarely coincide, and the series of syllables set down really convey no definite idea of the
actual notes.

" The present species begins breeding in the middle of April. Two of the three nests
obtained were taken on the Bulgar dagh, April 23rd and 25th, and contained six and four eggs
respectively. The other, which we had the good fortune to take ourselves on the Karanfil dagh
on April 23rd, also contained six eggs.

" Starting early, to escape the heat of the sun, we began to climb the north-west side of the
mountain. The first part of the way was up steep slopes covered with bushes, loose stones, and
a few old cedar and fir trees. By the time the foot of the rocks was reached tattered junipers
were the only trees left. Here the call of a Snow-Partridge far above our heads sounded a note
of encouragement. After going up a pretty good height the cry was again heard, and the sharp
eyes of one of the guides made out two Ur-kekliks — a male, perched on a high piece of rock, and
a female walking about below him. A stalk was attempted ; but the birds discovered us, and

2m2

244

went off with a loud defiant cackling. As they did not return, though patiently waited for, we
divided our party of four, which was made up of a strapping young Turk, a celebrated sportsman
called Zedi Aijlik (the seven-months one), our servant John Ross, and myself. Agreeing to
meet on the ridge of the mountain, Zedi Aijlik and myself took the right side, the others the
left. While climbing laboriously up the snow-filled gullies and round the cliff-ledges the echoes
of shouts sounded in the distance. Replying, we made in their direction, and reached a bay-
shaped corrie, on the opposite side of which our coadjutors were perceived. The clear mountain-
air enabled us to hear the good news that they had found a nest ; and with considerable difficulty
we joined them. It appeared that they had seen a cock bird; and while endeavouring to stalk
him by clambering up a steep narrow gully, the female had flown off a small ledge close above
their heads. The nest was placed on this ledge, and was sheltered by an overhanging rock, and
further by the gnarled old stump of a juniper, which, no doubt, owed its existence at this
elevation of 7000 feet to the very sheltered character of the position.

" The nest was a deep round hollow scraped in the stony earth, and slightly lined with dry
grass and a few feathers of the bird itself. It contained six eggs.

" The eggs are in colour dull light clay, with a faint oil-green tinge, some darker, others
lighter in ground-colour. The markings are lighter or darker red, in spots or small blotches.
Some specimens are but slightly marked, others closely spotted. In size they agree with those
of Tetraogallus Caucasians.

"The other nests, which were brought from the Bulgar dagh, were described as being of
similar construction, except that one of them was lined with bunches of green fir-needles. From
general accounts it seems that six to nine is about the usual number of eggs laid ; but the old
chief of Anascha told us how a year or two ago a nest of seventeen eggs was brought to him.
These he put under a hen ; and fifteen were hatched. "W hile young the little Ur-kekliks ran
about the premises like common chickens, and as they grew older went out to the rocky hills
close by, coming home every evening ; but when spring arrived they all gradually disappeared,
and never returned. As all the sportsmen repudiated the idea of seventeen eggs being found in
one nest, it is probable that old Hadji Achmed had two layings brought to him at the same
time.

"Stripping some bark from the old juniper, a rough plait was made, which, the ends being
turned up and tied together, formed a very decent kind of basket for our spoil. Two men were
left to watch for the return of the owners of the nest ; and the old sportsman and myself went
up to the ridge of the mountain. Here we examined a long line of cliffs by rolling down
stones. Only one hen bird was seen, which probably rose off a nest ; but the place was utterly
inaccessible. On rejoining our companions we found the birds had only once flown past, and
had gone further on. Taking that direction home, the pair dropped suddenly off a range of
rocks above us, and the male was shot. This additional good luck made the way home down
the steep flowery slopes and through the thick woods seem short enough.

" The large series of T. caspiits which was obtained exhibits a few slight variations in size
and colour. The general grey of the plumage is, in some specimens from the Bulgar dagh,
strongly tinged with reddish fawn, while in others from the Ala dagh it is exceedingly pure.

245

In a few males the white neck-stripes meet below ; and there is a very old female which has
completely assumed the male plumage.

" One point which puzzles me is the etymology of the name Ur-keklik. The latter part is
simple enough, being the universal Turkish word for Partridge ; but of the former syllable I
can get no interpretation, nor does it, though universally used in connexion with the present
species, appear to be a Turkish word, and it is probably in the ancient Chaldee that the significa-
tion of the word must be looked for."

In a footnote Mr. Danford remarks that in Hungarian " Ur " means noble, — which meaning
it doubtless has also in being used for the present species ; for the Russian authors give as the
equivalent of its name in German " Konigs Rebhuhn," or Royal Partridge.

The specimens of this Snow-Partridge figured are a pair in my own collection, for which
I am indebted to Mr. C. G. Danford. Besides the series of about twenty specimens collected
by that gentleman, I have, in the preparation of the above article, examined the following
specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 2, b, 6 . Anascha, Taurus, March 27th, 1876 (0. G. Danford).

246

247

Family TITRNICID-ffil.

Genus TURNIX.

Tetrao apud Desfontaines, Mem. de l'Acad. Roy. des Sc. 1787, p. 500.
Perdix apud Latham, Ind. Orn. ii. p. 656 (1790).
Turnix, Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl. i. p. 5 (1791).
Ortygis apud Illiger, Prodromus, p. 242 (1811).
Eemipodius apud Temminck, Pig. et Gall. iii. p. 626 (1815).

The Hemipodes differ so much from the other gallinaceous birds (standing, indeed, alone in
some respects) that they cannot be ranged with either the Phasianidse or the Tetraonidse, but
must be placed in a family by themselves. These birds inhabit the Ethiopian and Oriental
Regions, only one species being found in the Western Palsearctic Region. They are said to be
wild and shy in their general habits, frequent localities which are covered with bushes and low
trees, and are usually found amongst the dense thickets, whence it is difficult to flush them, as
they prefer to trust to running and hiding for safety. They are not migratory, but remain
in the same districts at all seasons of the year. They feed on seeds and other vegetable matter,
and, to some extent, also on insects of various kinds. Their nest is a mere depression in the
ground, lined with a few dry grasses, and situated in some well-concealed place, usually in a
dense thicket. They are said to lay only four eggs, which are greyish or buffy white, tolerably
closely marked with pale purplish grey and dark brown or purplish brown.

Turnix sylvatica, the type of the genus, has the bill straight, rather slender, decurved
towards the tip ; nostrils lateral, longitudinal, bare, partly covered by a membrane ; wings
moderate, broad, the secondaries as long as the primaries, the second quill longest, the first
being scarcely shorter ; tail short, soft, decurved, the feathers as soft as those of the coverts, by
which the tail is concealed ; tarsus rather long, slender, scutellate ; toes moderate, slender,
compressed, the hind toe wanting ; claws small, curved, acute.

172

248

494

ANDALUSIAN HEMIPODE
TURNIX SYLVATICA

249

TUKNIX SYLYATICA.

(ANDALUSIAN HEMIPODE.)

Tetrao sylvaticus, Desf. Mem. de l'Ac. Roy. des So. 1787, p. 500, pi. xiii.

Tetrao gibraltaricus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 766 (1788).

Tetrao andalusicus, Gmel. torn. cit. p. 766 (1788).

Perdix gibraltarica (Gm.), Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 656 (1790).

Perdix andalusica (Gm.), Lath. torn. cit. p. 656 (1790).

Turnix africanus, Bonnat. Tabl. Encyclop. Ois. i. p. 6 (1791).

Turnix gibraltarica (Gm.), Bonnat. torn. cit. p. 7 (1791).

Turnix andalusica (Gm.), Bonnat. torn. cit. p. 7 (1791).

Ortygis, Illiger (Tetrao gibraltaricus, Gm.), Prodromus, p. 242 (1811).

Hemipodius tachydromus, Temm. Pig. et Gal. iii. p. 626 (1815).

Hemipodius lunatus, Temm. torn. cit. p. 629 (1815).

Turnix andalusica (Gm.), Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xxxv. p. 45 (1819).

Turnix gibraltarica (Gm.), Vieill. torn. cit. p. 45 (1819).

Ortygis gibraltarica (Gm.), Bp. Comp. List, p. 44 (1838).

Ortygis andalusica (Gm.), Keys. & Bias. Wirbelth. Eur. p. 66 (1840).

Turnix gibraltarius, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 277 (1855).

Turnix albigularis, Malh. Faune Orn. de l'Alg. p. 26 (1855).

Turnix sylvaticus (Desf.), Bp. Cat. Parzud. p. 13 (1856).

Turnix tachydrome, French ; Toirao do mato, Portuguese ; Torillo, Spanish ; Quaglia tri-
dattila, Italian; Semmana, Arabic; Zerquil, Moorish.

Figuras notabiles.

Werner, Atlas, GallinacSs, pis. 17, 18; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 264; id. B. of G. Brit. iv.
pi. 16 ; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 263 bis.

2 ad. ptil. test, pileo nigro-fusco vix fulvido notato, centraliter stria, albo-cervina : capitis lateribus et mento
cervino-albidis, nigro fasciatis : corpore supra nigro-fusco, transversim castaneo et nigro notato, plumis
fere omnibus cervino-albo marginatis : tectricibus alarum ocbraceo-castaneis, conspicue nigro et albo
notatis : remigibus nigro-fuscis, extus cervino-albo marginatis : colli lateribus et hypocbondriis albidis,
conspicue nigro guttatis : gutture centraliter pallide ferrugineo : abdomine cervino-albo : subcaudalibus
oehraceis : rostro ad basin sordide cameo, versus apicem nigro-corneo : iride flavo-fusca : pedibus
pallide brunneis.

J ad. feminse similis sed minor et sordidior.

Ad. ptil. Mem. corpore supra sordidiore, plumis latiiis albido marginatis : corpore subtiis pallidiore, fere omnino
albo : mento albo.

2q

250

Adult Female (Malaga, 25th April) . Crown blackish brown, slightly marked with reddish brown, and with
a central brownish buff streak ; cheeks, sides of the head, and upper throat buffy white, closely barred
with black; upper parts blackish brown transversely marked with chestnut and black, most of the
feathers having also buffy white margins ; wing-coverts boldly blotched or spotted with blackish on a
dull rufescent or ochreous-chestnut ground, and broadly marked with buffy white ; quills blackish
brown, externally narrowly margined with buffy white; sides of the throat, neck, and flanks buffy
white, with a large crescent-shaped mark of blackish brown on each feather ; centre of the throat warm
pale ferruginous, gradually fading towards the abdomen into buffy white; under tail-coverts warm
ochreous ; bill dull flesh-colour at the base, becoming blackish at the tip ; iris light yellowish brown ;
legs light brown. Total length about 8 inches, culmen 06, wing 3 - 6, tail 1/7, tarsus 1/05.

Adult Male (Algeria, December) . Differs from the female in being smaller, in having the upper parts less
richly coloured and the white margins larger, the chin and upper throat white, the underparts much
paler, and the markings on the sides of the throat smaller and only extending to the upper flanks.
Total length about 6'5 inches, culmen 0'5, wing 3"25, tail 1*7, tarsus I/O.

I have described the male in winter plumage, as the sexes do not differ much in plumage, but only in size,
but the winter dress differs somewhat from that worn in the summer, being duller, the underparts
whiter, and the margins to the feathers on the upper parts broader.

Young. Resembles the adult in winter dress ; but there is more white in the markings of the plumage, the
underparts are white, and the markings on the sides of the neck and flanks are reduced to dark brown
dashes or blotches.

Young in down {fide Loche) . Covered with down, black, white, and rufous in coloration ; there is a black
stripe on the centre of the head, and three similar ones on the back, which are continued to the rump.

Beiito a resident species in the localities it inhabits, the present bird has not a wide' range; for
it has only been found in Southern Europe and North Africa, except as a rare straggler : in one
instance it has been obtained as far distant from its usual haunts as the British Isles, where a
single specimen was shot on the 29th October, 1844, near Chipping Norton, in Oxfordshire. It
has not occurred in Scandinavia or Germany ; and in France it appears to be only known in the
extreme south, where it is stated to have rarely occurred; but Professor Barboza du Bocage
includes it in his list of the birds of Portugal as being common in Alemtejo. In Spain it is,
according to Mr. Howard Saunders (Ibis, 1871, p. 224), "abundant near Algesiras, and not
uncommon near Malaga in April ; but elsewhere probably rare ;" and Colonel Irby writes (Orn.
Str. Gibr. p. 140) as follows : — " On the Spanish side [of the Straits] I was unable to detect any
migration of this Bush-Quail, though it is said by Andalucian bird-catchers and cazadores to be
migratory. The probability is that they are so ; but yet I am inclined to think the reverse, as
they are found in the same localities in equal numbers at all seasons of the year.

" Near Gibraltar it is a very local bird and nowhere plentiful, apparently less so than is
really the case ; for they are difficult birds to flush, and if put up once will rarely rise a second
time. Scattered here and there, they chiefly frequent palmetto scrub, and appear to be most
common near the coast, being more abundant to the east of the Queen of Spain's chair, especially
about the Lomo del Rey and a place called Los Agusaderas. In their flight and habits, from
what I could observe of them, they resemble the Indian Bush-Quail {Turnix dussumieri).

251

" I have often seen them among the rough grass and bents close to the sea-shore. One bird
in particular, I remember, for a long time frequented a patch of thick herbage near the mouth
of the ' First River ;' and whenever I rode by, my dog used to flush it, till at last one day, wanting
a specimen, I went purposely to shoot the bird ; but, of course, upon this occasion my friend was
not to be found, nor did I again see one there for some months.

"They are scarce between Algeciraz and Tarifa, but occur towards Vejer, and are tolerably
plentiful on the palmetto-covered high ground above Casa Vieja, called La Mesa ; further than
this I did not meet with it personally ; nor could I obtain any near Seville."

According to Salvadori it has only once occurred in Italy, a specimen having been sold in
the market at Nice; but in Sicily it appears to be common, for Lord Lilford writes (Ibis, 1875,
p. 24) as follows : — " I believe, from information obtained from Professor Doderlein, that Sicily is
certainly the headquarters of the Hemipode in Europe, as he told me, and states in his recently
published work on the ornithology of Sicily, that he had often shot from ten to fifteen specimens
in one day in the neighbourhood of Alicata, Girgenti, and Sciacca. I certainly never heard of a
similar abundance in any part of Spain." On reference to Professor Doderlein's work I find that
while, with the single exception of a specimen obtained near Palermo, this species is not known in
the northern portion of the island, in the southern districts, especially about Licator, Terranova,
Girgenti, Sciacca, Mazzara, &c, it is common and resident, no migration being ever noticed; but
it is more easily found in September and October, when in coveys, being a solitary bird at other
times. It prefers uncultivated and undulating ground covered with thick herbage and scrub, such
as Arundo ampelodesmos and Camerops humilis, and is also to be found by the side of sluggish
streams. It is slow to take flight, and does not remain long on the wing, preferring to trust to its
feet ; for it is an excellent runner. It does not appear to occur in Sardinia.

Eastward of the above localities the Hemipode does not appear to have been met with north
of the Mediterranean ; but in North Africa it ranges as far east as Egypt, where it is very rare.
Von Heuglin says that he only observed it in the western portion of the district visited by him,
viz. in the vicinity of Beni Ghazi, but he thinks that he saw one in the province of Schergieh, in
Lower Egypt. In North-west Africa, however, it is common and resident. Mr. Taczanowski
says that he met with it in Algeria, frequenting localities covered with small bushes close to
mountains ; and all the collectors who have visited that country appear to have met with it in
suitable localities. M. Favier says (fide Colonel Irby, I. c.) that it is " both resident and migra-
tory in the vicinity of Tangier, and a much less common bird than the ordinary Quail (Coturnix
vulgaris) ; those which migrate pass northward during May and June, and are seen on the return
passage in September and October." So far as I can ascertain, there does not appear to be any
record of its occurrence further south than Morocco.

In habits the present species appears to differ considerably from the common Quail. The
best account I can find of its habits is from the pen of Major Loche, who says that it is
monogamous, and inhabits localities which are covered with bushes and dwarf palms. It is
unsociable, caring but little for the society of others of its own species; hence it is usually
seen alone ; and in its general habits it is wild and shy. It runs more than it flies ; and as soon
as it perceives a sportsman it takes refuge amongst the dense bushes, whence it is almost
impossible to dislodge it, especially when it has once been flushed. It will sooner allow itself

2q2

252

to be caught with the hand or by the dogs than take wing ; but the denseness of the thickets
usually proves a good protection to it. It feeds on insects and seeds ; and in many individuals
dissected by M. Loche he found the seeds of wild plants, and other vegetable matter, remains of
ants, and a few small stones well worn. It nests under a tuft of grass or a bush, the nest being
a small depression in the soil, lined with dry grasses, or sometimes without any lining whatever,
but always situated in a thicket so thorny and impenetrable that the nest is seldom found. Two
broods are usually raised in the season, old females depositing the first clutch of eggs in May,
and the second in August, and younger ones in June and September ; and four or five eggs are
usually deposited. Both sexes undertake the labour of incubation and of rearing ; but should
the female be killed, the male will hatch out the eggs and rear the young. As soon as these
latter are able to shift for themselves their parents leave them, and make preparations for rearing
a second brood. The young can run as soon as they are hatched, and are carefully tended by
their parents, who call them together with a note resembling the syllable crroo several times
repeated ; and the young answer by a chirp like the note of the young Quail.

The Hemipode is not as erratic as the Quail, but is to be met with throughout the year in
the locality it has chosen for its abode ; and it is more numerous near the coast than far inland.
In spite of its shyness when in a wild state, the present species soon becomes accustomed
to captivity ; and Loche gives many details respecting the tameness of some which he kept in
confinement. A female deprived of her mate laid a number of eggs, most of which were, I
believe, sold to different collectors in Europe ; and Loche states that between the 3rd March and
the 15th October this bird laid upwards of fifty eggs. The following year a pair bred there in
confinement and reared four young ; but when they had commenced to breed a second time, they
were accidentally killed.

The ordinary note of this bird resembles the syllables crroou, crroou, crroou; but besides
this cry, Loche writes, " it utters at daybreak and at sunset a deep mournful note, a most peculiar
sound, which can only be compared to a very faint and low reproduction of the cry of the
Bittern. When producing this strange sound the bird throws up towards the back the covering
of the abdomen, so that it appears to have scarcely any abdomen left; and drawing the head
down between its shoulders it utters, without opening its beak, like a ventriloquist, a hollow
sound that appears to be far distant. Both sexes utter this sound ; but the male does so more
frequently than the female. Many people, especially sportsmen, on hearing it, flatly refused
to believe that it was produced by my Hemipodes ; and in order to convince them, I have had
the cage with the birds taken to a distant place, where, by watching them carefully, my friends
could convince themselves that the sound was really produced by the birds." Some interesting
notes respecting the habits of the Hemipode, from the pen of Canon Tristram, were published
by Mr. Hewitson, who gave, in the first volume of ' The Ibis ' (pi. ii.), an excellent plate of the
eggs of this bird together with some other oological rarities. " Although not rare in the wooded
districts of Northern Algeria," Canon Tristram writes, " its nest had until last year eluded the
researches of all the French collectors. Various eggs had from time to time come into the hands
of the Paris dealers, the produce of birds in captivity ; but these two eggs are, as far as I can
ascertain, the very first from a bird in a state of nature. They were taken by Captain Loche, of
the French army, in Kobah forest, on July 11th, 1857. The nest contained seven eggs, nearly

25-

t)

fresh. It was placed on the ground in the midst of a dense thicket of underwood, most
ingeniously concealed, and where no dog could penetrate to put up the bird. It was in such
situations that I had frequently before found the Hemipode, which never occurs in the plains or
in the desert. When disturbed, it is scarcely possible to make it take wing. When beaten out
of a bush, it half runs, half flies to the nearest cover, somewhat after the manner and with much
of the appearance of Baillon's Crake. I do not believe that it migrates in the Atlas, as specimens
are occasionally found at all times of the year ; nor does it appear ever to congregate, either in
flocks or bevies, after the manner of the Quail, to which, indeed, in all its habits it affords a
striking contrast." Colonel Irby (I. c), writing respecting the nidification of the present species,
says, " the nest is, from the skulking habits of the bird, extremely difficult to obtain. I never
had the good fortune to find one, but had one lot of eggs brought to me from near San Roque
on the 6th July, 1869. The finder said the nest was under shelter of a palmetto bush, and
merely consisted of a few bits of dried grass. These eggs, four in number (which is, without
doubt, the regular complement laid by all the Bush-Quails, Turnix), were very slightly incubated,
and in appearance much resemble those of the common Pratincole (Glareola torquata), only being,
of course, much more diminutive. Later in July I received several eggs from Mogador, which
exactly resembled the Spanish ones ; but not having been blown, and being hard sat-on, the shells
were so tender and rotten that I could do nothing with them. My friend Mr. Reid, of the Royal
Engineers, informs me that he had the luck to find a nest, placed in grass near the shore on the
eastern beach, on the 19th of May, 1873; this nest contained four eggs (incubated), as did
another from near Tangier obtained by Olcese."

I possess eggs of the present species from Loche — some being from birds kept in captivity,
and others taken wild. The former are rather paler in coloration than the latter, which have
the ground-colour greyish or buffy white and are tolerably closely marked with pale purplish
neutral-tinted shell-spots and dark brown or purplish brown surface-blotches. In shape they
resemble the eggs of the common Quail, and in size vary from f % by f-g- to 1-£q by |-§ inch.

The specimens figured are an adult female in full breeding-dress in the foreground, and a
male in winter plumage in the background, these being the birds above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, s . Gibraltar, December 1874 {Colonel Irby) . b, c, ? . Malaga, Spain, April 25th, 1869 (H. Saunders) .
d, d. Tangier (Olcese). e, <S . Algeria, December (Verreaux).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, $ ■ Malaga, January 3rd, 1872. b, ? . Malaga, June 10th, 1872. c, 6 . Malaga, September 23rd, 1872
(H. S.).

254

255

Order III. GRALL.E.

Family RALLID^].

Genus RALLUS.

Rallus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 151 (1760).

Scolopax apud S. G. Gmelin, Reise d. Russl. iii. p. 90 (1774).

Aramus apud G. R. Gray, Hand-1. of B. iii. p. 59 (1871).

The species included in this genus inhabit the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Nearctic, and
Neotropical Regions, one species only being found in the Western Paleearctic Region. They
inhabit the grassy and reed-covered margins of lakes and rivers, and any damp, well-covered
localities where they can find an abundance of food and have good opportunities of concealment.
They wade in shallow water, and are able to swim, and even dive, when purs-ued and closely
pressed. They feed on worms and small aquatic insects of various kinds, and to some extent
also on seeds. Their flight is laboured and heavy ; and they seldom fly far when flushed, but
drop into cover again after having flapped heavily a short distance. Their call-note is loud and
clear ; but, as a rule, they are not noisy birds. They breed in damp localities, constructing a
loose nest of dried leaves and aquatic plants, in which they deposit six or seven eggs, which are
very pale stone-buff in colour, sparingly spotted and blotched with purplish grey and dark red.
The young birds are able to leave the nest soon after they are hatched, and are very expert in
hiding should danger threaten.

JRallus aqicaticus, the type of the genus, has the bill longer than the head, slender, slightly
decurved, compressed in its whole length, tapering slightly to the tip; nasal groove extending
along two thirds of the bill, the nostrils linear, partly covered by a membrane; wings short,
concave, rounded, the first quill shorter than the sixth, the second longest, the third scarcely
shorter ; tail short, rounded, the feathers broad, rounded, and weak ; legs and feet long, the
lower part of the tibia bare ; tarsus rather long, scutellate ; toes very long, slender, compressed,
the claws slender, arched, compressed, slightly tapering.

[ 73

256

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257

EALLUS AQUATICUS.

(WATER-RAIL.)

Rallus aquaticus, Briss. Orn. v. p. 151, pi. xii. fig. 2 (1760).

Rallus aquaticus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 262 (1766).

Scolopax obscura, S. G. Gmel. Reise d. Eussl. iii. p. 90, pi. xvii. (1774).

Le Rale d'eau, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 154, pi. xiii. (1781).

Rallus sericeus, Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 33 (1816).

Rallus germanicus, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 690 (1831).

Rallus indicus, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xviii. p. 820 (1849).

Rallus minor, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 328 (1855).

Rallus fiiscilateralis, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 328 (1855).

Aramus aquaticus, G. R. Gray, Hand-1. of B. iii. p. 59. no. 10408 (1871).

Rale d'eau, French ; Frango d'agua, Portuguese ; Rascon, Spanish ; Porciglione, Italian ;
Gallotz-ta-scitua, Maltese ; Wasserralle, German ; Waterral, Dutch ; Vandrixe, Danish ;
Jearakona, Fseroese ; Keldusvin, Icelandic ; Vandrixe, Norwegian ; Vattenrall, Swedish ;
Rantakana, Finnish.

Figure notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 749 ; Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 33 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 38, and
Suppl. pi. 18 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 35. fig. 8 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 235 ;
Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 14. fig. 1 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 339 ; id. B. of G. Brit. iv.
pi. 86 ; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 257.

Ad. pileo, collo postico et corpore suprk olivaceo-fulvidis conspicue nigricanti notatis : tectricibus alarum
minus nigricanti notatis : remigibus olivaceo-fuscis : cauda, nigro-fusca, rectricibus pallidiore olivaceo-
fusco marginatis : loris fuliginosis : capitis lateribus, gula, gutture et corpore subtus saturate schistaceo-
caeruleis : abdomine imo centraliter fusco-cervino, bypocbondriis nigris albo transfasciatis, subcaudalibus
nigris cervino apicatis, sed irnis cauda, proximis fere omnino albis : rostro fusco, maxilla inferiore
rubra : iride rubra. : pedibus fusco-incarnatis.

Juv. adulto similis sed supra magis olivaeeus, gutture et pectore sordidioribus et cervino lavatis, mento albido.

Adult Male (Stockholm). Crown, nape, and hind neck blackish, marked with fulvous brown; upper parts
generally olivaceous fulvescent brown, broadly blotched with blackish, the wing-coverts but slightly
marked with this colour ; quills deep brown with an olivaceous tinge ; tail rather darker brown, the
feathers bordered with olivaceous brown ; lores sooty blackish ; sides of the head, throat, neck, breast
down to the upper abdomen, deep slaty blue ; abdomen and flanks black barred with white, the centre
of the lower abdomen brownish buff or creamy brown with a grey tinge, this colour extending onto the
upper part of the under tail-coverts, which, however, are black at the base, the lower portion next to
the tail being white, forming a conspicuous white patch ; bill dark brown, except at the base of the lower

258

and edge of the upper mandible, -where it is red ; legs fleshy brown ; iris red. Total length about
10 inches, culmen 1-62, wing 4-6, tail 2 - 12, tarsus T72.

Adult Female (Copenhagen) . Does not differ from the male in plumage, except that the colours are perhaps
a little duller.

Young (Butrinto, Albania). Resembles the adult, but has the upper parts more olivaceous, the throat and
breast duller, the feathers sullied with buff; there is more creamy brown on the lower abdomen; and the
chin and upper throat are white, the latter tinged with slate-grey.

Nestling. Covered with black down.

Obs. Judging from the series of specimens I have examined, there appears to be no difference between the
summer and winter dress, except that in the late summer the plumage is rather worn and pale. I find
a considerable variation in the size of the bill, some of the specimens I have examined having the bill
only 1"4 inch in length, whereas others have it as long as 1*8. As a rule, it appears that the female
has a shorter bill than the male ; but this does not seem to be always the case. The young bird has the
iris brown ; and it gradually assumes a rich orange-red colour as the bird approaches maturity.

The Water-Rail has a somewhat wider distribution to the eastward than the Land-Rail, being
found far into India ; but in Africa it appears to range only into the northern portions of the
continent, being replaced in South Africa by Rallus ccerulescens ; and, though generally distri-
buted throughout Europe, it does not range so far north as Crex jpratensis.

In Great Britain it is found at all seasons of the year, and is very generally distributed
throughout the whole of the United Kingdom. Mr. A. G. More states that it breeds through-
out the mainland ; and it is found also in almost all suitable localities during the winter. In
Norfolk, Mr. Stevenson says (B. of Norf, ii. p. 404), it is " both a resident and migrant, those
which remain with us throughout the winter receiving considerable accessions to their numbers
in March and April ; and though a large portion of those which have bred in our marshes pass
southward again at the close of the breeding-season, migratory flights from the north are met with
at intervals in autumn and winter. In support of this view of the habits of a bird not easy of
observation at any season, I may state that between the middle of March and the first or second
week in April, it is customary to find several couples of Rails in the Norwich market, hanging
for sale with the Snipes that simultaneously make their appearance in our marshes. From that
time until the close of the breeding-season they are pretty generally dispersed over the country
wherever moist localities afford sufficient harbour ; and though, of course, more abundant on the
broads themselves, are known either by their cries or the chance discovery of their eggs and
young, to frequent the margins of our inland meres, wet commons, and even rough sedgy water-
courses." Hancock (B. of North, and Durh. p. 124) says that in Northumberland and Durham
it is "not uncommon, though rarely seen, on account of its retiring habits. It is a resident, but
to a considerable extent is migratory, and is most numerous during autumn and winter. Its nest
has occurred in the district, and was taken by Mr. C. M. Adamson, on the 12th of July 1867, at
Grindon Lough; it was built amidst reeds, about knee-deep in water, and contained seven eggs."
Mr. Robert Gray writes (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 334) of the present species, "is commonly distri-
buted over the whole of Scotland, including the Outer Hebrides and the Orkney and Shetland

259

Islands. I have obtained specimens from the counties of Argyle, Ayr, Inverness, Perth, Moray,
Banff, Aberdeen, Forfar, Fife, East Lothian, Berwick, and Wigton ; also from the islands of
Harris, North Uist, Lewis (where it is plentiful), Skye, Mull, and Iona. It is also met with in
Ross and Sutherlandshires. In some of the midland and eastern counties it appears to be
resident all the year ; and the same, indeed, may be said of it in some of the inner islands, where
from the vegetation or brushwood near its haunts, it is often, when frozen out, seen running
about in a half-bewildered state seeking protection. At such times it may easily be captured, as
it seems reluctant to take flight for its own safety, even when pursued." Dr. Saxby, in his notes
on the ornithology of the Shetland Isles, writes, under date 31st March 1864 : — During the pre-
ceding winter " Water-Rails were to be seen in many parts of these islands. Upon the whole,
they may be considered rather scarce here ; but they have been more frequently met with this
year than previously. As soon as the frost sets in, they visit enclosed grounds, sometimes
venturing into corn-yards, and even to our very doors ; but I never find corn in their stomachs,
even in the most severe winter." Baikie and Heddle state also that it occurs in Orkney at all
seasons of the year.

In Ireland it is common and generally distributed, being, Thompson says, permanently
resident throughout the island, though little known except in winter. It has not occurred in
Greenland ; but Professor Newton writes, it is " rare in Iceland, though apparently a resident
there. Faber obtained one in the north on the 23rd December 1819. Dr. Kriiper says he saw
two of its eggs in a collection at Reykjavik in 1856 ; and these were probably the specimens
which were obtained two years after by Mr. Wolley and myself, and are now in my possession.
M. Benguerel seems to have met with the bird, concerning which wonderful stories are told by
the Icelanders."

Mr. H. C. von Miiller states that it is an annual visitant to the Faeroes. It is tolerably
common in Scandinavia : in Norway, Mr. Collett says, it breeds regularly in the coastal districts,
at least as far north as the Trondhjemsfiord, and is seen somewhat rarely also in the winter;
and in a note lately received, he adds that in the districts near Trondhjem alone this sporadic
species is met with regularly every year, and several were shot there in the autumn of 1875.
Some years this species occurs not unfrequently along the south-west coast. Near Bergen, for
instance, it was abundant even in 1869, and several individuals were shot in the course of the
winter. Indeed, this bird is observed as often in winter as in summer, which arises from its
shy habits. According to Professor Nilsson it is, generally speaking, somewhat rare in Sweden,
and, as a rule, is only a summer visitant, a few remaining over the winter both in Skane and
near Gothenburg. It is, he adds, said to be common in Dalecarlia. It has only once been
known with certainty to occur in Finland, the bird in question being one which was caught
alive, half-starved, at Helsingfors, on the 19th April 1844.

In Russia its range is, Mr. Sabanaeff says, but imperfectly defined. It is rare in the Jaroslaf
Government, and is only seen in the Moscow Government on passage; but it breeds in the
Voronege and Orloff Governments. According to Mr. Taczanowski it is common in Poland in
the summer, arriving about the middle of March and leaving late in October. A few stragglers
remain over winter.

Borggreve says that it occurs regularly on passage in the marshy districts of North Germany,

2t

and winters here and there ; but he doubts many of the statements as to its remaining there to
breed. He adds, it is said to breed in Silesia, Anhalt, Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, Miinsterland,
and near Coslin in Pomerania. Eeferring to this, Mr. Hermann Schalow writes (J. f. O. 1876,
p. 16) as follows: — "The Water-Kail is tolerably numerous throughout Mark Brandenburg, but,
owing to its secretive habits, is often overlooked. Borggreve says that he did not observe it at
Oderbruch before October, and further states that it is uncertain whether it breeds in North
Germany. Zander having shown that it breeds in Mecklenburg, E. von Homeyer in Pomerania,
A. von Homeyer and Tobias in Silesia, and Blasius in Brunswick, we can testify that it does so
also in Mark Brandenburg. In a letter to me, Altum states that it breeds near Neustadt ; and I
have myself observed it during the breeding-season near Konigs-Wusterhausen, Nauen, Havelberg,
and other localities in that district. As a migrant it is seen late in March and in October. In
Denmark it is most numerous during passage in April and October ; but a few remain over winter
in mild seasons. It breeds but rarely there ; but several instances of its nest and eggs having been
found are cited by Mr. Collin. According to Mr. Cordeaux a few occur in Heligoland in March
and April, and again in September, October, and November, and occasionally later. Probably
not more than a score, Mr. Gatke informed him, could be captured in any one year on the island-
Baron von Droste Hulshoff says that from the middle or second half of October throughout the
winter until the middle of May it is met with as a straggler on the island of Borkum ; and
Mr. van Wickevoort-Crommelin writes in his 'Notes sur les Rales des Pays-Bas :' — "It is neither
rare nor common in the Netherlands ; and its nest has been found only in few localities, more
often on the lake of Kralingen, near Rotterdam, and in Groningen. On passage it is much
more numerous, and occurs in October and November in localities which it does not inhabit in
the summer, such as the humid bush-covered places along the maritime dunes of Holland, where
a few remain all the winter. During mild seasons I have frequently seen it in December and
January, and received one killed on the 15th of February last in the Bloemendaal swamp at the
foot of the dunes not far from Harlem." It is found in Belgium and France during the summer
season, and occurs there also more or less regularly during the winter. In Portugal it is
stated to be common ; and Colonel Irby says (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 144) : — " The Water-Rail is very
common in all suitable localities on the Spanish side ; and their croaking, frog-like call is always
to be heard in the swampy jungle at Casa Vieja. Being to a great extent a migratory bird, it is
most common in winter ; but, owing to the cover being more thin, at that season all the Rails and
Crakes are easier to obtain." In Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia it is resident ; and in Corsica it is also
found, on both sides of the island, but, Mr. C. Bygrave Wharton says, is not numerous. Mr. C. A.
Wright states (Ibis, 1864, p. 149) that it occurs in Malta in spring and autumn, and, to some
extent, in the winter, but is not very common ; and Lord Lilford writes that it is very common
and, he believes, resident in Epirus. Dr. Kriiper says that it is common in Greece in the autumn
and winter, but its nest has not been found there, as the marshes are too unhealthy to be explored
in the summer. In Southern Germany it is resident and tolerably common in almost all suitable
localities. Dr. Fritsch says (J. f. O. 1871, p. 380), it " arrives in Bohemia in May, inhabits
the marshes, and breeds on the edges of ponds which are overgrown with rushy grass. It
remains with us till late in the autumn ; and H. Lokaj received examples even in the middle of
winter." It is common in Austria; and Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown say the same as

261

regards Transylvania, where, Herr Csato states, it is migratory in the Strell valley. It occurs in
Turkey and Southern Russia, is common in winter and probably breeds in Asia Minor, and.
Canon Tristram says, is permanently resident in Palestine.

In North Africa it is found in the winter. Captain Shelley states (B. of Egypt, p. 273) : —
" This species is a winter visitant, and is plentiful in Lower Egypt and the Fayoom, where I have
frequently killed it, but has not been met with, to my knowledge, in Nubia. It frequents the
sedgy districts, and when disturbed only flies a short distance to the neai'est patch of thick covert."
Von Henglin says that, according to his experience, it is one of the rarer winter visitants to Egypt,
and he never observed it south of the Nile delta ; but Lefevre states that it occurs near Adowa, in
Abyssinia. It is resident in Algeria, and breeds commonly in the marshes of Zana and Djendeli.
Canon Tristram met with it in the Sahara, at Laghouat ; and Favier says that it occurs on passage
near Tangier, frequenting the edges of rivers and swamps, where they conceal themselves in the
sedges. Mr. Godman did not meet with it in the Azores, and says that he possesses a skin of
the present species which was taken in lat. 46° 48' N., long. 11° 30' W., by the late Mr. W.
Osburn when on his voyage to Jamaica in October 1867. It does not appear to occur at all in
South Africa, being there replaced by Rallus ccerulescens, Gm.

To the eastward the Water-Rail occurs at least as far as India and China ; but in Japan it is
replaced by an allied, though, as it appears to me, a fairly distinct species, Rallus japonicus,
Schlegel — which differs in having the dark mark through the eye more clearly defined ; and the
barring on the abdomen extends quite to the end of the under tail-coverts, there being no buffy
red and no white patch as in Rallus aquaticus. In the young bird the under tail-coverts and
crissum are slightly tipped with rufous buff. I have examined several examples in the collection
of the Marquis of Tweeddale, from Japan, and one in my own, all of which are easily distin-
guishable from Rallus aquaticus.

The common Water-Rail is said by Dr. Severtzoff to be both resident and migratory in
Turkestan ; and in Persia, Mr. Blanford writes (E. Persia, ii. p. 288), it is " probably not rare in
the higher marshes ; but I do not know if it breeds there. Judging from one of the specimens,
which is scarcely full-grown, I should think it did. The specimens were collected by Major St.
John. Menetries found it in the marshes between Salian and Lankoran."

I have not been able to examine a specimen of the so-called Rallus indicus, but agree with
Dr. Jerdon that it is probably identical with the European bird. According to Blyth the Indian
bird differs in being larger, with a conspicuously thicker bill and legs ; and he also mentions the
dark streak below the eye, and the less-pure hue of the lower parts, as distinctive characters. It
is certainly not the same as Rallus japonicus ; for Jerdon especially states that it has the lower
abdomen reddish brown, as in the European bird, which is not the case with Rallus japonicus.
Dr. Jerdon says (B. of India, ii. p. 727) : — " It appears to be rather a rare bird in Central and
Southern India, and has chiefly been found during the cold season, being probably migratory
like some of the other Rails. It frequents marshy ground, generally in rather thick covert. I
have only seen it myself in Northern India; and Adams states that it is common in the Punjab."
In China, according to Swinhoe, it is found in Tientsin; and Messrs. David and Oustalet state
that it is not unfrequently captured near Pekin. From the description given by the latter
authors (Ois. de la Chine, p. 489) it appears certain that the Water-Rail found in China is our

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262

European bird, and not Rallus japonicus. It does not appear to have been observed by Von
Middendorff or Von Schrenck ; but Dr. Radde obtained one through Mr. Maack from the mouth
of the Ussuriin 1860.

In habits the present species differs greatly from the Land-Rail, and much more closely
resembles the Aquatic Crakes; for it is a frequenter of wet, swampy localities where there is
plenty of cover, frequently in the vicinity of woods, or in marshy places surrounded by trees, in
wet, over-grown ditches, but seldom on open sheets of water, and never in dry localities or in
open places, except by accident. Like the Spotted Crake and its allies it is a very shy, unob-
trusive bird, shunning observation as much as possible, and always keeping to the dense vegetable
growth in the marshy localities it frequents. It swims with ease and grace, and hence never
shuns the deep water where it cannot wade. When on the water it resembles the Water-Hen ;
for it elevates its tail and jerks its head as it paddles along. Sometimes when closely pursued it
will even seek safety by diving ; but this probably but seldom occurs. Its flight is laboured and
heavy, and it seldom flies far, but rises and flaps along as if with difficulty, with its long legs
hanging down, and soon seeks shelter again amongst the reeds and aquatic herbage. Naumann
states that it will occasionally perch on a low bough of a tree ; but I have never personally seen
it do this. It has a rather loud, clear cry, resembling the syllable creek, which it seems to utter
when on the wing, especially during the season of passage ; and, besides this, the bird often calls
his mate with a sharp whistle resembling the sound produced by drawing a switch quickly
through the air.

The Water-Rail is a very unsociable bird, and is seldom found otherwise than singly or in
pairs, even on passage. It feeds on worms and small aquatic insects of various kinds, and
especially on small snails, only when compelled by hunger resorting to vegetable diet. In a
specimen obtained in Norway on the 13th of October 1875, Mr. Collett found numbers of small
insects, chiefly coleoptera, amongst which were a small species of Hyphydrus, a large larva,
several small Phryganea-\a,ryse, several Aranece, some coarse gravel, and a few seeds of an aquatic
plant.

It breeds in damp, swampy localities, and conceals its nest with great care. This latter,
which resembles that of the small Crakes, is placed above the water or marsh, and is constructed
on the bent leaves or stems of sedge or rushes, but seldom resting on the ground itself. It is a
loosely made structure formed of dried leaves of aquatic plants, tolerably large, and contains
eight or ten, and sometimes even more eggs ; and the young birds are able to leave the nest soon
after they are hatched, and, like those of the Land-Rail, are very expert in hiding when disturbed
and danger threatens. Colonel Irby, who has taken the eggs of the Water-Rail in Spain, writes
(I. c.) : — " They build in rushes or sedges, laying about the 20th of April. On the 13th of May
we found two nests, from each of which Mr. Stark succeeded in snaring one of the old birds ; these
nests, built entirely of dry sedge and lined with a few bits of dry grass, were just raised above
the water, and measured 6 inches in height, depth, and diameter ; the hollow of the nest was
4^ inches across by 2\ deep. Each nest contained seven eggs much incubated — one lot being of
the usual type, the other resembling more those of the Spotted Crake, or, rather, looking like
miniature Water-Hen's eggs with larger blotches than usual."

Eggs of the Water-Rail in my collection are pale whitish stone-buff in ground-colour,

263

sparingly marked with pale purplish shell-spots and dark red surface-spots and blotches, and
measure from 1^§ by l^g- to 1\% by 1^- inch. .

The specimens figured are an adult bird and a young bird in down, both being the examples
above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 2 ad. Rye, Sussex, September 26th, 1860 (H.E.D.). b,2- Hampstead, April 2nd, 1870. c, 3. Hampstead,

January 1871. d,$. Hampstead, December 6th, 1871 {Davy). e,<J. Stockholm, July 27th, 1874 (Meves).

f, 6 ■ Near Copenhagen, February 5th, 1870 (Benzon). g, 6 . Ajaecio, Corsica, March 23rd, 1875 (C. B.

JVharton). h,<3. Butrinto, Albania, November 8th, 1871. i. Albania, November 1871 (Hanbury

Barclay) . k. Cairo, Egypt (G. E. Shelley) .

E Mus. Lord Tweeddale.
a,b,<$. Cookham, Berks {Briggs) . c. Morocco (Olcese). d,d. Guiken, Asia Minor, November 17th (Robson).

E Mus. Brit. Beg.

a, 2 ■ Monmouth, December 4th, 1873 (Morgan), b. Turkey, September 17th. c, <J ■ Buyukdere, Turkey,
January 21st (Robson). d. Shiraz, Persia (Blanford).

264

265

Genus PORZANA.

Rallus apud Brisson, Orn. v. p. 155 (1760).

Gallinula apud Latham, Ind. Orn. ii. p. 772 (1790).

Porzana, Vieillot, Analyse, p. 61 (1816).

Ortygometra apud Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1816).

Zapomia apud Leach, ut supra (1816).

Octogometra apud Forster, Syn. Cat. Brit. B. p. 27 (1817).

Zaporina apud Forster, op., cit. p. 59 (1817).

Crew apud Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 80 (1823).

Phalaridion apud Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 173 (1829).

Phalaridium apud Meves, Journ. far Orn. 1875, p. 433.

This genus is represented in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Nearctic, and
Neotropical Regions, three species being found as residents in the Western Palaearctic Region.

They frequent damp, swampy localities similar to those where the Water-Rails are to be
met with, and resemble those birds much in their general habits. They are extremely secretive,
and are hard to drive out of the dense reed-thickets where they usually live, and through which
they run and slip with ease. They swim with facility, and sit lightly and gracefully on the
water. They feed on aquatic insects, snails, worms, &c, and to some extent also on vegetable
matter, and usually obtain their food in shallow water, or on the edges of ditches, or in muddy,
damp localities. They make a bulky, carelessly built nest of dried reeds and aquatic herbage,
and deposit several dark ochreous or olivaceous-ochreous eggs, spotted and marked with dark
rufous or dull dark brown.

An American species (Porzana Carolina) has been included in the British list on the strength
of an occurrence said to have taken place near Newbury, Berks, in October 1864 ; but it certainly
appears to me premature to admit it on such slight grounds.

Porzana maruetta, the type of the genus, has the bill rather shorter than the head, higher
than broad at the base, tapering, compressed, the tip acute ; nasal groove long, the nostrils
linear, oblong, median ; wings rather short, broad, concave, the first quill shorter than the fifth,
the second longest ; tail short, rounded, the feathers soft and weak ; lower part of the tibia bare ;
tarsus rather long, scutellate ; toes very long and slender ; claws long, slender, curved, tapering,
acute.

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267

POEZANA MARUETTA.

(SPOTTED CRAKE.)

Rallus aquaticus minor sive maruetta, Briss. Orn. v. p. 155 (1760).

Rallus porzana, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 262 (1766, ex Briss.).

■? Rallus fulicula, Scop. Ann. i. Hist. Nat. p. 108. no. 158 (1769).

La Maronette, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 157 (1781).

Gallinula porzana (L.), Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 772 (1790).

Porzana, Vieill. (La Marouette, Buff.) Analyse, p. 61 (1816).

Ortygometra maruetta, Leach, Syst. Cat. B. & M. Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1816).

Octogometra maruetta (Leach), T. Forst. Synopt. Cat. Brit. B. p. 27 (1817).

Crex porzana (L.), Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 80 (1823).

Ortygometra porzana (L.), Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xii. pt. i. p. 233 (1824).

Gallinula maculata, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 698 (1831).

Gallinula punctata, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 699 (1831).

Zapomia porzana (L.), Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 343 (1838).

Porzana maruetta (Leach), Bp. Cat. Metod. Ucc. Eur. p. 64 (1842).

Ortygometra arabica, Licht. Nomencl. Av. p. 96 (1854).

Gallinula leucothorax, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 329 (1855).

\Gallinula gracilis, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 329 (1855).

" Zapomia marmorata, Leach" (ubi?) fide Heugl. Orn. N.O.-Afr. p. 1242 (1873).

Poule d'eau-marouette, French ; Franga de agua, Rabiscoelha, Portuguese; Polluela, Spanish ;
Voltolino, Italian ; Gallotz-sekond, Maltese ; gesprenkeltes Sumpfhuhn, punktirtes
Rohrhnhn, German ; de Porceleinhoentje, Dutch ; plettet Sumphbne, Rorvagtel, Danish ;
smaaplettet Sumphone, Norwegian ; smaflackig Sumphona, Swedish ; Kaisla-raakkd,
Finnish ; Kamyschnik, Russian.

Figuroe notabiles.

DAubenton, PI. Enl. 751 ; Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 35 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 38 ;
Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 237 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 32. fig. 1 ; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 237; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 45. fig. 3; Gould., B. of Eur. pi. 343;
id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 88 ; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 354 ; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. pi. 83.

d ad. fronte, pileo et capitis lateribus, mento et gula saturate schistaceo-cinereis : loris et plumis ad basin
rostri fere nigris : pileo centraliter nigro et rufescente fusco notato : nucha, collo postico et corpore
supra rufescenti-olivaceo-fuscis, illis albo punctatis, hoc eodem colore striato et nigro notato :
remigibus ct rectricibus olivaceo-fuscis, remige extimo anguste albo marginato : gula, gutture et
corpore subtus schistaceo-cinereis, illis albo punctatis : abdomine centraliter fere albo : hypochondriis

2K

268

albo fasciatis et notatis : subcaudalibus ochraceo-cervinis : rostro aurantiaco-flavo, ad basin rubro :
iride fusca : pedibus luteo-viridibus.

$ ad. mari similis sed minor et sordidior, minus albo notata, abdomine magis albo, et hypochondriis fusco
lavatis.

Adult Male (Rotterdam) . Forehead, crown, sides of the face, chin, and upper throat deep blackish slate-
grey, the throat and head in front of the eye unspotted; crown closely marked with black and dark
reddish brown ; lores and feathers at the base of the bill nearly black ; nape, hind neck, and upper
parts generally dark reddish brown with an olivaceous tinge, on the neck closely dotted with white, and
on the rest of the upper parts marked with short stripes and spots of white and tolerably regularly
blotched with black ; quills and tail dark olivaceous brown, the first primary externally narrowly mar-
gined with white ; underparts deep slate-grey, the centre of the abdomen nearly white, the breast spotted,
and the flanks spotted and barred, with white ; under tail-coverts warm ochreous buff ; bill orange-yellow,
except at the base, where it is red ; iris dark reddish brown ; legs green with a yellowish tinge, the joints
tinged with lead-blue. Total length about 8"5 inches, culmen 0"85, wing4'8, tail 2'2, tarsus T-45, middle
toe with claw 1"7.

Adult Female (Corsica, 27th March) . Resembles the male, but is rather smaller, is less marked with white,
and duller in colour, the slate-blue coloration on the head and neck is more tinged with brown, the
flanks are tinged with brown, and there is more white on the abdomen.

Young Male (Turkey, 14th September) . Resembles the female, but is still duller in colour, the head is
spotted to the base of the bill, the chin is nearly white, the rump is much darker, nearly black, and
there is rather more white on the underparts.

Young in down. Covered with glossy jet-black down ; inner portion of both mandibles blue-grey, in front
of which a small black band crosses over the nostrils ; tip of the maxilla? pure white, bordered by a
black spot ; tip of the lower mandible black.

The Spotted Crake inhabits Europe generally during the breeding-season, ranging further north
in the eastern than in the western part. In the autumn it migrates southward, and is found
commonly in winter in North Africa; and in Asia it is met with as far east as Eastern Siberia.
According to Yarrell (Brit. B. iii. p. 113) "it is more frequent in England in the maritime
counties than in others; and its appearance has been recorded in Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorset-
shire, Hampshire, and, in fact, all round the southern and up the eastern coast as high as
Durham and Northumberland." Mr. Mansel-Pleydell says that it is a summer visitant to
Dorsetshire, remaining from March to September. One was shot, he says, near Wareham in
September 1868, another at Weymouth on the 5th November 1852; one was taken alive in a
garden at Radipole, and was sent to the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, on the 27th October
1866, by Mr. Thompson, whose son also shot one at Lodmoor, Weymouth, on the 28th September
1872. Mr. Stevenson, referring to the occurrence of this species in Norfolk, writes (B. of Norf.
p. 393) as follows: — " The Spotted, like the Corn-Crake, visits us regularly in spring, and, though
chiefly confined to the ' Broad ' and ' Fen ' districts, is by no means uncommon between the
months of March and October. Considering the almost impenetrable swamps the Crakes fre-
quent in summer, the fact of their nests being but seldom found is of course no proof of their

269

scarcity ; and in like manner, owing to the extreme difficulty with which they are flushed, even
on the mown marshes in autumn, the few examples killed yearly by the Snipe-shooter at that
season are, I consider, an evidence of many passing wholly unnoticed.

" Mr. Lubbock speaks of the spring arrivals of this species as occurring with great regularity
between the 12th and 20th of March; but of late years I have no record of their appearance
earlier than the 21st of that month ; and a female killed on the 23rd of March, 1866, at Ludham,
was then forward in egg. During the first week in May, as recorded by Mr. W. R. Fisher in the
'Zoologist' of 1843 (p. 248), the eggs of the Spotted Crake have been taken in the neighbour-
hood of Yarmouth ; and I have had fresh eggs from Hickling on the 26th of that month, and
have seen the young, in their black down, taken on Rockland Broad in the last week of July.
With reference to its breeding in Norfolk, Messrs. Sheppard and Whitear remark, ' We have
seen a considerable number of its eggs at Yarmouth, which, as well as its young, were found in
the neighbourhood of that place — and are also in possession of an egg taken from a female of this
species, which was killed in the marshes below Norwich.' It seems probable, however, that they
were formerly more abundant in this county than they are now, as Mr. Rising informs me he
has killed seven or eight in a day at Horsey, where they are comparatively scarce at the present
time. A few years back a nest of this Crake was found by Mr. A. Hammond, jun., on the
margin of a reed-bed on Walton Common, near Westacre ; and the small chain of fens on the
river Thet, in the south-western part of the county, is also frequented by this species.

" On two or three occasions I have shot this Crake when looking for Snipe at Surlingham,
where both young and old, before their departure in October, frequent the rough marshes
surrounding the reed-beds ; but in these localities even a dog well accustomed to the spot will
sometimes be baffled altogether by the quickness with which the bird threads its way amongst
the tangled grass, or slips round the little tussocks. When too closely pressed, also, and com-
pelled to take wing, it not unfrequently flies so low, in a line with the dog, that it pitches again
before a safe shot can be had ; and then most probably it drops amongst the reeds, and is seen no
more. On the 4th of September, 1861, four were shot at Stalham on the same day; but I
find from my notes for the last twenty years that the majority of the specimens brought to our
bird-stuffers for preservation have been killed between the 2nd and 29th of October. On the
22nd of October, 1856, one old bird and three young of the year were shot at Rockland. About
that time, I believe, the greater number take their departure for the south ; but stragglers are
occasionally met with throughout November, of which I have records in different seasons on the
2nd, 9th, 16th, and 30th. I have also been assured by the marshmen that this Crake may be
found at times in midwinter; but one shown me in the flesh on the 2nd of December, 1868, is
the latest I have ever known. As the birds observed thus late in the year are almost invariably
in immature plumage, they are most probably the result of a late hatch, and therefore unable to
join the earlier migrants." Mr. Cordeaux says (B. of Humb. Distr. p. 143) that it is " very
locally distributed, but by no means uncommon in certain localities, and on each side of the
Humber. In Lincolnshire it is yet tolerably numerous near Ashby, in the wild district near the
Trent ; also in the neighbourhood of Tetney, near Grimsby." Further north I find it recorded
from Northumberland and Durham by Hancock (B. of North, and Durh. p. 125) as "a resident,
and to some extent migratory. It occasionally breeds in the district. A nest of eggs was taken at

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270

Prestwick Car, many years ago, by the gamekeeper of the late Sir Matthew White Eidley, Bart.
A few years ago another nest of young, just hatched, was taken at the same place by Mr. Turner,
of Prestwick. And, according to Mr. W. Proctor, it bred some years ago at Framwellgate Car.
Durham."

In Scotland this Crake becomes rarer, and, though it doubtless must breed there in many
localities, its nest has not often been taken. Mr. Eobert Gray (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 333) says
of it: — "a very uncommon species in the western counties; it is, however, more numerously
distributed throughout the eastern counties, extending from Orkney to Berwickshire. In
Aberdeenshire and Forfar, according to Macgillivray, it can scarcely be called very rare. ' In
Scotland,' says Mr. More in ' The Ibis,' the nest has been found only in Perth, Aberdeen, and
at Loch Spynie, in Elgin ;' but, as the birds have been repeatedly taken in the breeding-season
in Banffshire, Fife, East Lothian, and Berwick, it is not unreasonable to infer that the species
nests in these counties also. In the west of Scotland the Spotted Crake has been taken in
Wigtownshire, Ayrshire, and Eenfrewshire ; but I have no authentic instance to give of its
occurrence north of the last-named district. In its habits this bird closely resembles its con-
gener the Water-rail, and, like it, is not easily flushed from its haunts.

"Although a migratory species, the Spotted Crake appears to come early, specimens being
occasionally taken about the beginning of April ; as a rule, it also lingers much later than other
migratory birds, stray examples having been shot in November, December, and even January; so
that it is absent not more than two or three months. It may, indeed, be yet found to be, in
some of the southern districts, permanently resident." It does not appear to have ever been met
with in Shetland ; but Messrs. Baikie and Heddle say (Nat. Hist. Ork. i. p. 69) that it is stated,
in 'Anderson's Guide,' by the Eev. C. Clouston to have occurred in Orkney, though neither date
nor locality are cited. It has, however, they add, been observed, though rarely, in Sanday.

In Ireland the Spotted Crake is less numerous than in England, and Thompson says that it
"can only be announced with certainty as an occasional though probably a regular summer
visitant" to that island. There are two instances of its occurrence in Greenland. One was,
Professor Newton says, obtained at Godthaab on the 28th September 1841, and a second at
Nenortalik in 1856. It has, however, not been recorded from either Iceland or the Feeroe
Islands ; but it is found in Scandinavia, though chiefly in the southern districts. Mr. Eobert
Collett informs me that it breeds sparingly in the southern portions of Norway, as, for instance,
on Eomerike and the Hvaloer, possibly also in several other localities round the south coast,
where individuals have been observed at Porsgrund, Lauervig, Fredrickstad, Nedernaes, Chris-
tiansand, and on Jgederen ; and Professor Nilsson says that it is not so rare in Sweden as has
been supposed, for it is not uncommon in Skane, and he has also heard it near Gothenburg,
where, Malmlen says, it is quite common. It occurs at least as far north as Upland, and pro-
bably up into Westerbotten. Dr. Palmen states that it is found in many parts of Southern
Finland up to 63° N. lat., but is everywhere met with sparingly, chiefly breeding. It is occa-
sionally seen in Uskela parish and Helsinge, and thirty years ago- was common at Gloet, near
Helsingfois ; but drainage has driven it away. Dr. Palmen cites the following localities in which
it has been met with, viz. Borga, Perna parish, Walkeala parish, Wiborg, Thusby trask, Mantsala,
Tavastland, Nyslott, Kexholm, Dworetz (in Eussian Karelen), near Kuopio, Kaavi (in Northern

271

Karelen), and adds that Malmberg heard it in Tuusniemi and Nilsia in 1871 and 1872, and
M. von Wright heard its note on the 11th July at Haukipudas kapell, in 65° 10' N. lat.

In Russia it appears to range further north than in Western Europe. Messrs. Alston and
Harvie-Brown, who met with it near Archangel, write (Ibis, 1873, p. 67) as follows: — "The
peculiar ' whuit, whuit ' of the Spotted Crake first attracted our attention as our canal-boat crept
slowly through the great marshes between Wosnesenskoi and Wuitegra. We afterwards pro-
cured both old and young in down at Waldushki ; and at many other localities this curious cry
sounded in the still nights, and was taken up and replied to on every side. This must be a very
abundant species, especially in the great marshes above mentioned." Mr. Meves obtained the
eggs of this species at Archangel. Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that it is common throughout the
interior of Russia. It is common in the St. Petersburg Government ; and Mejakoff says that it
is also found in Vologda. In the Ural, Sabanaeff only observed it in the southern portions of
the Perm Government, on the eastern slope, and he does not believe that it has been seen higher
than Ekaterinburg on the western side ; Teplouhoff met with it in 58J° N. lat.

According to Mr. Taczanowski it is common throughout Poland, where it arrives early in
April, and remains until the end of October. According to Naumann the Spotted Crake is found
generally throughout Germany, but more especially in low swampy localities, where it is common.
In Anhalt and the adjacent provinces it is the commonest of the Crakes, and much more
numerous than the Water-Rail and the Water-Hen. It arrives about the middle of April, and
commences its migration southward again late in August, a few stragglers remaining until the
early part of October. Borggreve says that it occurs generally in the summer throughout North
Germany, but is commoner in the eastern than in the western portions.

Mr. Collin writes (Skand. Fugl. p. 553) that this species breeds here and there not unfre-
quently in the Danish provinces, as, for instance, at Aarhus, several localities in Vendsyssel, as,
for instance, Dronninglund and Gaardbo so, at Thisted, Ribe, Gedsorgaard, Soro and Herlufs-
holm, Helsingor, Moorso and Schwentine, on the west coast of Schleswig, at Flensborg, Ostrup-
gaard, and it is occasionally seen on Bornholm. According to Mr. Cordeaux (Ibis, 1875, p. 186),
it occurs on Heligoland in May and September : not half a score are observed in a year ; but
three fourths of these are met with in May. In Holland it is common, arriving in April,
remaining to breed, and leaving again in September and October ; and Baron Fallon says that it
is not rare in Belgium, where it is found in the marshes of Limbourg, in Campine, occasionally
along the Meuse and on the edges of the large marshes, arriving and leaving about the same
time as it does in Holland. Messrs. Degland and Gerbe state that it is not uncommon in France
during the summer season, and is said by M. Bouteille to breed very numerously in the marshes
of Saint-Laurent du Pont, near Grenoble. M. Adrien Lacroix says that it winters in the French
Pyrenees, arriving late in August or early in September ; a few breed rarely in Herault, Tarn-et-
Garonne, and the Pyrenees orientales, and it is to some extent resident in Aude. It is stated by
Professor Barboza du Bocage to be common in Portugal ; and in Spain it is, according to
Mr. Howard Saunders, abundant in the winter. He adds that he has no proof of its remaining
to breed. Colonel Irby, however, states that it is extremely abundant in Southern Spain, more
so than the Water-Rail, and is most frequent in spring and autumn. " Many remain," he says,
" during the winter months ; and they occur also sometimes in the breeding-season ; so, although

272

I did not actually obtain an identified nest, I have no doubt they are to be found breeding in the
country." Von Homeyer met with it in the Balearic Isles ; and, according to Count Salvadori,
it is found on passage in Italy, and probably breeds there. It is common in Sicily during the
winter, and is said to breed near Catania and Syracuse. Mr. C. Bygrave Wharton obtained it in
Corsica in March and April; and Mr. C. A. Wright says (Ibis, 1864, p. 150) that it is pretty
common in Malta, being most plentiful in March.

In Southern Germany it is tolerably common during the summer. Dr. Fritsch says that it
is numerous, in suitable localities, in Bohemia from April to October, and especially so near
Weisswasser ; the late Mr. E. Seidensacher informed me that he used to meet with it near Cilli,
in Styria, on the autumn passage; and Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown state (Ibis, 1875,
p. 418) that it is common everywhere, and migratory, in Transylvania. It is found not uncom-
monly in Turkey, and, Dr. Kriiper says, is a resident in Greece. The specimens in the Museum
at Athens were killed in Attica on the 7th of March and 2nd of June. Resident and common in
the Ionian Islands, Lord Lilford says it is more numerous in September and October than at any
other time. It is found in Asia Minor, where Strickland met with it near Smyrna in winter ; and
Colonel Drummond-Hay says that it breeds commonly in Crete. Canon Tristram did not meet
with it in Palestine, though he believes that it occurs there in suitable localities, and it is found
in North Africa.

Von Heuglin says that it appears not uncommonly in September and October in Egypt,
Nubia, and the coasts of the Bed Sea, as also on the Blue and White Nile, where it winters.
He observed a few in May in the Fayoom and Nile delta; and Riippell states that it occurs in
Abyssinia. Captain Shelley believes that it is resident in Lower Egypt, as one or two specimens
may generally be met with. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., met with it at Laghouat, in Algeria; and
Loche says that it is resident in that province. Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake obtained two at
Martine in March ; and Favier says {fide Colonel Irby, Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 143) that it is met with
near Tangier during passage, but not in any great number. I do not find it recorded from
Central or Southern Africa; probably it does not range below the northern portions of that
continent ; but, according to Berthelot, it has been obtained in the Canaries.

To the eastward the Spotted Crake is found at least as far as India ; but it does not occur
in China or Japan. Pallas certainly states that it is found in Eastern Siberia ; for he writes
(Zoogr. Bosso-As. ii. p. 155) as follows: — "In arundinetis Rossiae et Siberia?, praasertiin australi-
oribus, passim vivit." But later explorers do not appear to have met with it in Eastern Siberia.
Mr. Blanford obtained one specimen in Persia ; and De Filippi states that Doria found it common
in spring at Veramin, south-east of Tehran. According to Severtzoff it breeds rarely in Turkestan ;
and Mr. A. O. Hume says (Stray Feathers, i. p. 251) that one was shot in the Roree district
(Sindh) by Dr. Day. He never happened to come across it again ; but sportsmen to whom he
showed the skin told him that it was not uncommonly met with in tamarisk thickets, in and on
the edges of swamps, when beating for Snipe. According to Dr. Jerdon it is " found all over
India in the cold season, and frequents marshes, rice-fields, and moist meadows near rivers and
tanks;" and Dr. Henderson writes (Lah. to Yark. p. 293): — "A single specimen of this species
was obtained at the Karatag lake, on the Karakoram, at an elevation of over 16,000 feet. This
was on the 24th September, and the bird was probably on its way southwards ; it could not

273

possibly have been any thing but a casual visitor, as the lake lay in perfectly bare shingle, and
there was hardly a vestige of vegetation anywhere about. The bird was easily caught by the
hand ; and at the same time and place, as already mentioned, a common Quail was captured.
This lake lies almost in the most direct route, as the crow flies, between Yarkand plains and Le,
and between the nearest points respectively of the Karakash and Shyok." It does not occur in
the Nearctic Region. In closing my notes on the geographical distribution of this species I
must not omit to refer to an excellent paper by M. van Wickevoort Crommelin, " Notes sur les
Rales des Pays-Bas," in the ' Archives Neerlandaises,' t. viii., in which the distribution of the
present species, as well as that of its allies, is most carefully and accurately worked out.

In habits the Spotted Crake, like its allies, is exceedingly secretive ; and hence it is far more
frequently heard than seen. It frequents swampy localities where aquatic herbage is abundant,
and where it can find good shelter ; and it is extremely difficult to force it to take wing when it
is in the dense cover of the reeds, through which it creeps and glides with the greatest ease.
When followed by a dog, it invariably seeks to escape by running and hiding ; and it is only when
hard pressed that it will take wing, to fly only a short distance, and again seek shelter amongst
the reeds. On the wing it does not by any means appear to advantage ; for it flies heavily, like
a young bird that has not yet attained to the full use of its wings, and its legs hang down
clumsily, unless it flies to some distance, when they are stretched out behind. It is by no means
a shy bird, and, as a rule, is not afraid of man, unless it is much disturbed ; and if one moves
about quietly, and when in the vicinity of the bird remains quite still, it can often be watched
without much difficulty. Its call-note is a clear loud Jciveet, which is seldom heard during the
daytime, but most frequently in the evening or at night ; and Naumann remarks that the note
with which the sexes call each other is low, and seldom heard unless every thing else is quiet ; and
he likens it to a heavy drop falling from a height of several feet into a vessel of water. This
bird feeds on aquatic insects and insect-larvse, small worms and small snails, as well as tender
shoots of water-herbage and grass-seeds, and usually seeks its food in shallow water or on moist
and swampy ground, on the edge of ditches, &c. &c. It always selects a wet place for the purpose
of nidification ; and the nest is not unfrequently placed so that the bird can only reach it by
swimming, which it can readily do ; for it swims with grace and ease, jerking its head as it paddles
along. The nest of the Spotted Crake, resembling that of the Water-Rail, is a careless, bulky
structure of flags, dried reeds, and leaves of aquatic plants, lined with finer materials ; and the
eggs, from nine to twelve in number, are deposited in May or early in June. They are oval in
shape, the surface of the shell being smooth and rather glossy. In ground-colour they are warm
ochreous, or dull ochreous marked with fine dots, with violet-grey shell-markings and reddish
brown spots and blotches, which are tolerably regularly scattered over the surface of the shell.
In size those in my collection vary from 1^ by f^- to 1^-J by ff inch.

The nest is exceedingly difficult to find, being very carefully concealed amongst the reeds or
long aquatic grass, and is placed either on the damp ground or on a platform of broken-down
reeds in the water.

The specimens figured are the adult male and the young bird above described.

274

8
In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, c? ad. Rotterdam, 1858 (H. E. D.). b, 6 . Lake Bigulia, Corsica, March 17th, 1875 (W. Jesse), c, d ,
d, 2- Ajaccio, Corsica, March 1875 (C. B. Wharton), e, $. Malta [Whitely). f, 6juv. Khathane,
Turkey, September 14th, 1871 (Robson) .

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275

POKZANA BAILLONI.

(BAILLON'S CRAKE.)

i.Rallus pusillus, Pall. Reis. Russ. Reichs, iii. Auh. p. 700. no. 30 (1776).

1 Rallies minutus, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso- As. ii. p. 155 (1811).

Rallus bailloni, Vieill. Nouv. Diet, xxviii. p. 548 (1819).

Gallinula baillonii (Vieill.), Temm. Man. d'Orn. ii. p. 692 (1820).

Gallinula stellaris, Temm. Man. d'Orn. p. 693 (1820).

Crex bailloni (Vieill.), Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 80 (1823).

Ortygometra baillonii (Vieill.), Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xii. p. 228 (1824).

Gallinula pygmcea, Naum. fide C. L. Brehm, Lehrb. Naturg. eur. Vog. ii. p. 641 (1824).

Phalaridion, Kaup {Gallinula pusilla pygmwa), Natiirl. Syst. p. 173 (1829).

Crex foljambei, Eyton, Cat. Brit. B. p. .46 (1836, nee Mont.).

Crex fygmaea, Naum. Naturg. Vog. Deutschl. ix. p. 567 (1838).

Ortygometra pygmcea (Naum.), Keys. & Bias. Wirbelth. Eur. p. 68 (1840).

Porzana pygmcea (Naum.), Bp. Ucc. Eur. p. 64 (1842).

Zaporina pygmcea (Naum.), Bp. Cat. Parzud. p. 15 (1856).

Porzana baillonii (Vieill.), Degl. & Gerbe, Orn. Eur. ii. p. 258 (1867).

Poule d'eau Baillon, French ; Schiribilla grigiata, Italian ; Zwerg-Sumpfhukn, German ;
het kleinste Waterhoen, Dutch.

Figures notabiles.

Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 37; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 32. fig. 3; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 239; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 344; id. B. of G Brit. iv. pi. 89; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl.
pi. 255 ; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 332 ; Jardine & Selby, 111. Orn. i. pi. 15.

<5 ad. pileo, nucha et collo postico saturate fulvidis, olivaceo tinctis et nigricante notatis : corpore supra
saturate olivaceo-fulvido, nigro notato : dorso, uropygio et tectricibus alarum albo guttatis : cauda
et reraigibus saturate fuscis, remige extimo in pogonio externo albo cervino marmorato : capitis
lateribus, gula, gutture et corpore subtiis saturate schistaceo-cseruleis : abdomine imo, hypochondriis
et subcaudalibus nigris albo fasciatis : rostro ad basin pallide viridi, versus apicem nigricanti-viridi :
iride coccinea : pedibus sordide grisescenti-carneis.

2 ad. mari similis, sed corpore supra pallidiore et subtus sordidiore.

Juv. corpore supra sicut in adulto picturato sed sordidiore notato, nee subtus sehistaceo-caeruleo, sed capitis
lateribus ochraceo-fuscis, mento et gula, superiore albis : gutture, pectore et hypochondriis superioribus
fuscescenti-ochraceis, abdomine centraliter albo, hypochondriis et subcaudalibus nigris albo fasciatis.

Pall, lanugine nigra, indutus, rostro albo, pedibus rufescenti-albis.

276

Adult Male (Valencia, 19th March). Crown, nape, and hind neck dark reddish brown, with an olivaceous
tinge, and marked with blackish ; upper parts generally dark olivaceous reddish brown, marked with
black, and clearly spotted on the back, rump, and wing-coverts with white ; tail and quills dark brown,
the first primary marked on the outer web with buffy white ; sides of the head, throat, and underparts
deep slate-blue ; the lower abdomen, lower flanks, and under tail-coverts black, barred with white ;
under wing-coverts black, barred with white; bill sea-green at the base, becoming blackish green
towards the tip ; iris carmine-red ; legs dirty greyish flesh. Total length about 7 inches, culmen
0*75, wing 35, tail 2'05, tarsus 1 - 1, middle toe with claw 1"45.

Adult Female (Valencia, May) . Resembles the male ; but the upper parts are rather lighter, and the under-
parts of a less pure blue.

Young Female (S.E. Ural). Differs from the adult in lacking all trace of blue; the sides of the head are
warm ochreous brown, the chin and upper throat pure white ; lower throat, breast, and upper flanks
dull brownish ochreous ; centre of the abdomen white ; flanks and under tail-coverts black, barred with
white ; upper parts as in the adult, but scarcely so clearly marked.

Nestling. Covered with black down ; bill white ; feet reddish white.

The range of this, the least of our European Crakes, is very extensive ; for it is found throughout
Central and Southern Europe, ranging northward as far as Great Britain, extending eastward in
Asia as far as China, and occurring in Africa as far south as the Cape colony.

In Great Britain it has occurred now and then ; and it is very possible that some of the
occurrences recorded as being of Porzana parva may really refer to the present species. Yarrell
writes (Brit. B. iii. p. 121) as follows: — "One of the earliest notices of the occurrence of this
bird with which I am acquainted is published in the second volume of the ' Zoological Journal,'
p. 27, on the exhibition of a specimen at the Zoological Club of the Linnean Society, which
belonged to Dr. Thackeray, the Provost of King's College, Cambridge, and which was caught
upon some ice at Melbourne, about nine miles south of Cambridge, in January 1823. 'To this
spot, originally fen land, the poor bird had resorted, in an inclement season, to obtain a meal,
but, having wandered far from its native and more congenial latitude, was so exhausted by want
of food, or the low temperature of the season, or the combined effects of both, as to allow itself
to be taken alive by the hand.' In the third volume of the same journal, p. 493, G. T. Fox, Esq.,
of Durham, has recorded another specimen of this bird, which was killed within three miles of
Derby, in November 1821." Mr. Sealy, in the 'Zoologist' for 1859 (p. 6329), gives an account
of two nests of this Crake taken in Cambridgeshire ; and it has also bred in Norfolk. Mr.
Stevenson writes, respecting its occurrence in Norfolk (B. of Norf. ii. p. 401), as follows: —
"Messrs. Gurney and Fisher describe this diminutive Rail as 'very rare, but less so than the
Little Crake ;' yet, to my surprise, I find the records of its occurrence far less frequent ; and
although a nest and eggs, presumed to belong to this species, have been recently discovered, for
the first time, in Norfolk, I know of no instance in which it has been killed in this county
during the last twenty years. Mr. Lubbock, in his ' Fauna,' states that, to his knowledge, ' it
has been shot three times on Barton Fen, and appears far more rare than it really is, as it creeps
and skulks about, and a dog, however sagacious, can scarcely compel it to fly.' The same author

277

also remarks in a communication to Yarrell, ' On the 2nd of April, 1833, a fenman of my
acquaintance killed an adult male of this species upon a marsh at Dilham, in this county ; it
was late in autumn, and the bird was in immature plumage.' A specimen in Mr. J. H. Gumey's
possession was thus recorded by him in the 'Annals of Natural History ' for 1842, under the
date of August 23rd: — 'About ten days since I received a specimen of that rare bird the
Baillon's Crake, killed near Yarmouth ; it is a fine male.' Again, in October 1840, as Mr. Dowell
informs me, he and a friend when Snipe-shooting at Shropham and on Buckenham Fen killed
two of these Crakes in the day. One, unfortunately, was too much spoilt by the dog for
preservation ; the other he presented to the Rev. W. W. Poley, of Brandon, in whose pos-
session it still remains. Although constantly shooting, however, in the same neighbourhood,
over the small chain of fens which border on the river Thet, he never met with another
specimen.

"The discovery of the supposed nest and eggs of this bird in Norfolk, in the summer of
1866, was first announced in the 'Zoologist' for that year (p. 389) by Mr. J. Overend, of
Yarmouth, who, under date of July 9th, states, ' On the 9th of June a friend of mine in this
town was fortunate enough to obtain in the market four eggs of Baillon's Crake ; and on Saturday
last (July 7th) another of my friends was so lucky as to get five eggs of the same species.' From
further inquiries at the time, and communications received from Mr. R. Upcher, Mr. Crowfoot,
and Mr. Frere, of Yarmouth, I was enabled to gather the following additional particulars. It
appears that the four eggs mentioned by Mr. Overend as purchased on the 9th of June were
taken on that day at Potter-Heigham, or rather on Heigham Sounds, near Hickling, by a
labouring man, who sold them to a lad named John Smith, at Yarmouth, who had been in the
habit of collecting eggs for Mr. Crowfoot. The former was of course ignorant as to what they
were ; but as soon as their rarity was known, it was elicited from the man who took them that
he had seen the parent birds near the nest, which was placed in a parcel of reeds growing in
water about a foot in depth. It was very small and loosely made, composed of dry rushes. A
few days later Smith paid a visit to the spot with the hope of securing the nest, but found that
the reeds had been cut and the nest spoiled ; and no doubt the man who discovered it was employed
in reed-cutting at the time. The five eggs procured on the 7th of July were also taken in the
same locality ; but of these, unfortunately, three were broken. What became of the nest I
cannot say ; but the two were most likely constructed by the same pair of birds." According
to Sir William Jardine it has once occurred in Scotland, one having been shot on a moss near
Locherbie ; but Mr. Robert Gray remarks that this is probably the only instance of its occur-
rence north of the Tweed, except that mentioned by Mr. James Wilson, who states that
Mr. Sinclair, of Wick, obtained one in Caithness-shire. It has been recorded by Hadfield from
the Isle of Man ; and a single example has been obtained in Ireland, in a bog at Clay Castle,
near Youghal, on the 30th October 1845.

It has not been met with in Sweden, Norway, or Finland, and appears to be rare in Russia
(for I do not find it included in any of the lists of birds met with there) ; but, according to
Mr. Taczanowski, it is found in Poland, where it is much rarer than Porzana maruetta. It is
found in Germany, but appears generally to be less numerous than Porzana jparva. Borggreve
gives no data respecting its range, as he believes it to be specifically identical with Porzana

2n

278

parva; but Gloger records it (Schl. Wirbelth. -Fauna, p. 51) as occurring, though rarely, in
Silesia; and Count Rodern found it breeding near Glogau. Naumann frequently met with it
during the breeding-season in Anhalt, especially in the marshes between the Elbe and the
Saale, except in dry seasons. It arrives in May and leaves probably in August, migrating
always at night. He also adds that it is found in Franconia and Hessen, especially near the
Main. It is not rare near Hanau, and is said to breed near Bischoffsheim and Enkheim.
Landbeck records it from Wiirttemberg, Kettner from Baden ; and Brehm obtained it from near
Ahlsdorf, in Saxony. Mr. van Wickevoort Crommelin, who has most carefully collected data
respecting its range, says that it is very rare in Lorraine, where it has been killed near Nancy ;
it breeds near Nantes, and not unfrequently in the marshes of Picardy, near Abbeville, but less
frequently in the departement du Nord, where it remains from the end of April to August. It
has been observed in April in Luxemburg, and is of accidental occurrence in Belgium ; and it
certainly breeds in Holland, where it cannot be very rare, as English collectors have obtained a
tolerable number of eggs there. Mr. van Wickevoort Crommelin says that " a female was
captured on her nest near Bois-le-Duc, in Brabant ; another, killed in our country, is in the
Leyden Museum ; and I possess a young male which was sent to me from Zwartsluis, in
Overijssel, on the 1st September, 1872. Sportsmen when Snipe-shooting frequently see this
Crake in that province late in April ; and it probably breeds there." In France the present
species is said by Degland and Gerbe to occur generally throughout the country, breeding in the
northern districts. It arrives in the south of France in March, and is most numerous on passage ;
but some pairs remain to breed there. Messrs. Jaubert and Barthelemy-Lapommeraye say, indeed,
that it is common in several parts of the south of France during the breeding-season, as, for
instance, in the marshes of St. Laurent, near Grenoble. Professor Barboza du Bocage says that
it is common in Portugal. And it appears to be by no means uncommon in Spain ; for I have
received many specimens from there ; Mr. Howard Saunders says that it is rather rarer than
the Little Crake ; Lord Lilford found it breeding near Seville ; and Colonel Irby writes of it
(Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 143), " Seldom obtained, owing to its skulking propensities. I found this
prettily marked Crake very common when Snipe-shooting at Casa Vieja from October to February.
We also obtained it at the Laguna de Janda in May. Many are resident, breeding at the end of
April, when they make a small nest of sedges and grass placed at the edges of swamps, laying
from five to seven olive-brown eggs spotted with darker brown."

Passing eastward, again, I find it recorded by Bailly(Orn. Sav. iv. p. 263) as common in the
marshes of Savoy, where it arrives in April and leaves in September. It is rare in Switzerland
during the breeding-season ; but Salvadori states (Ucc. d'ltal. p. 331) that it breeds in Tuscany,
Lombardy, and Venetia. Mr. C. A. Wright, who records its occurrence in Malta, says (Ibis,
1864, p. 150): — "This bird is probably commoner than it is generally considered to be, owing
to its retiring habits and its being mistaken for Rallus parvus. The first that came under my
notice was shot by Mr. J. Quintana, at the Marsa, on the 27th October 1860 ; and another was
killed at the same place on the following day. Two others are in my possession, both obtained
in March — one in 1861, and the other in 1862. I have seen three others in local collections.
The most recent capture (March 19th, 1863) came into the possession of Captain Morgan, who
skinned it."

279

In Southern Germany it is found here and there. Dr. Fritsch says (J. f. O. 1871, p. 381)
that, according to Palliardi, it was obtained at Elbekostelec by Mr. Haring ; but he himself has
never met with it in Bohemia. It breeds, Althammer states, rarely in the Tyrol ; Hanf records
the occurrence of several specimens in May, August, and October, in the Furt marsh in Upper
Styria; Natterer met with it near Trieste in April; and according to Naumann it inhabits
Dalmatia. Baldamus states that it breeds regularly in Hungary; and Messrs. Danford and
Harvie-Brown write (Ibis, 1875, p. 418) that it is rare in Transylvania, but has been found in
the Strell valley and in various parts of the country. I never met with it on the Lower
Danube ; but it is a bird that might easily escape observation, and may occur there in many
parts ; for Gould says that it is common in the marshes of Bulgaria. I have, however, never
received it in any of the collections from Turkey, where it doubtless may be looked for.
Dr. Kriiper states that it is seldom seen in Greece ; but, according to Erhard, it is a resident in
the Cyclades. It appears to have been overlooked by the Kussian authors, but occurs in
Southern Russia; for I received through Mr. Meves a specimen from the Southern Ural, and
Colonel Irby states that he found it common in the Crimea in April.

I do not find any data respecting its occurrence in Asia Minor and Palestine ; and it is of
somewhat rare occurrence in North-east Africa, though it is met with down as far as South
Africa. Captain Shelley did not meet with it in Egypt ; but a brother of the late Mr. S. Stafford
Allen, who is now resident at Alexandria, has sent me a specimen from there ; and Von Heuglin
says that he met with it at the north-east end of Birket el Qarn, in the Fayoom, where it was
not rare early in May, and was seen in pairs. According to Vierthaler it is met with up the
Nile to Chartum. It is to some extent resident in Algeria, being, however, more numerous
during the seasons of passage. Mr. Salvin (Ibis, 1859, p. 361) saw it occasionally at Zana, and
obtained one nest there ; and Mr. J. H. Gumey, jun., procured one at Laghouat. Mr. C. F.
Tyrwhitt-Drake states that it is rare in Tangier; and Favier only met with it once there, in
1857. According to Vernon Harcourt it is rare on passage in Madeira, and it occurs far south
in Africa. Mr. Andersson (B. of Damara Land, p. 37) writes: — "This pretty species is an
inhabitant of the few marshes existing in Damara Land. At Omanbonde, where it breeds, I
found it plentiful ; it is also common in the marshy districts about Lake Ngami, and on the rivers
Teoughe and Okavango ; and I likewise obtained a specimen in Ondonga. It frequents alike
the rank vegetation of the stagnant pools and the more scantily sheltered rills, searching indus-
triously for insects, worms, slugs, snails, &c. When surprised it takes wing more readily than
most of its congeners, but flies only for a very short distance, and drops amongst the aquatic
herbage at the first convenient spot, from whence, if needful, it prolongs its retreat by running.
This Crake constructs its nest of pieces of stalks of reeds, rushes, and other vegetable substances.
The eggs are six or seven in number, of a brownish buff or olive-brown colour, closely spotted
with obscure markings of a darker hue, and are rather larger than the eggs of the Starling."
Smith obtained it in South Africa ; and Layard says that it is found in several places there :
he obtained examples at Swellendam, on the borders of the Buffeljagts river. According to
Mr. Gumey (Ibis, 1865, p. 273) it is "found in the vicinity of Maritzburg; it inhabits the
swamps and rushy pools, creeping amongst the weeds and grass on the edges in search of food ;
when disturbed it flies but a few yards, and drops suddenly into the weeds almost before the

2n2

6

gun can be got to the shoulder, and is therefore not very easy to shoot ; the early morning is
the best time to look for these birds." According to Mr. Edward Newton it was obtained by
Mr. Caldwell at Antananarivo, in Madagascar ; and I have examples from that locality, which
agree closely with European specimens.

In Asia the present species has a tolerably wide range. Dr. Severtzoff says that it is found
on passage and breeds in Turkestan, and it winters in Persia. Mr. A. O. Hume writes (Stray
Feathers, i. p. 251) as follows : — " I never once met with it in Sindh ; but I have it from near
Simla, up to a height of 4000 feet, from Etawah, Sirsa near Delhi, Raipoor, Dacca, and Tipperah,
from none of which I have seen the Little Crake. In fact, until I went to Sindh, I never met
with this latter bird in India ; and Dr. Jerdon does not include it in the ' Birds of India.' Baillon's
Crake breeds in the North-western Provinces at any rate, as Mr. Brooks and I took one nest,
containing three eggs, in the Etawah district ; and the Little Crake breeds, as the boatmen told
me, regularly in Sindh." Dr. Jerdon says (B. of India, ii. p. 724) that it is commoner than
Porzana maruetta, frequents similar places, and has a like geographical distribution. I have
killed it in every part of the country, chiefly in the cold season ; some pairs, however, may breed
in this country, as I have killed it in Eastern Bengal in May. Messrs. Henderson and Hume
write (Lahore to Yarkand, p- 293): — "A single specimen was obtained near Shahidulla, in the
plains of India. This species breeds with us in July and August in the plains of Upper India,
and in June and July in Kashmir and the valleys in the lower ranges containing suitable rice-
swamps or marshy pools. It is very common near Syree, below Simla. The full number of eggs
is, I believe, eight, as we found the fragments of this number of shells round a nest that had
hatched off; but six is the greatest number of eggs that I have ever obtained. The nest is made
of rush and weed, completely concealed in water-grass, wild rush, and the like, and is usually
very little above the water's edge." It was once obtained by Mr. Layard in Ceylon ; and
Mr. Davison states (Stray Feathers, ii. p. 301) that he shot a female at Port Mouat, in the
Andamans. It occurs to the eastward to China and Japan. According to Dr. Dybowski the
present species breeds in Dauria ; and Radde obtained two old males — one late in May on the
Tarei-nor, and the other in August near Kiirinsk, on the eastern slope of the Southern
Apfelgebirge.

Pere David says (Ois. de la Chine, p, 487) that he found it common in the eastern portions
of the part of China he visited, and numbers breed in the marshes near Pekin ; and Mr. Swinhoe
obtained it in Amoy. According to Schlegel there are examples in the Leyden Museum from
Japan and the Philippines.

In habits Baillon's Crake is said to resemble Porzana maruetta very closely, much more so
than it does the Little Crake. It inhabits marshy localities, chiefly the small ponds on the
edges of large marshes, swampy ditches, &c, and is much less frequently seen in open sheets of
water than Porzana parva. Like its allies it lies hidden amongst the dense aquatic herbage
which covers the places it inhabits, and it is consequently difficult of observation. It swims with
ease and grace, frequently nodding its head and jerking its tail; and in case of need it dives
readily. It walks with quick steps on the floating leaves of aquatic plants and grasses, and is
easy, quick, and graceful in its movements, except on the wing ; for its flight is weak, short, and
laboured, the legs hanging clumsily down as it flaps along, and it drops down again into the

281

welcome shelter of the reeds after it has traversed a short distance. When pursued by a dog it
seeks to hide amongst the dense herbage, and only takes wing as a last resource when pressed
very close. During the daytime its voice is seldom or never heard, but only in the dusk of the
evening or during clear nights, and most frequently when it is circling round at some height
preparatory to taking a longer flight than usual. Its call-note is a low piping tone, closely
resembling the note of the Little Crake, from which, however, it can be distinguished by a
practised ear. Von Heuglin says (Orn. N.O.-Afr. p. 1236) that those he met with in North-east
Africa " were frequenting shallow water, where the bottom was sandy ; and they were generally
seen not far from the shore, amongst numerous tamarisk bushes. -During the daytime they were
tolerably shy, and immediately we approached took refuge amongst the tangled mass of roots,
and were loth to leave their hiding-place again ; but at night and at daybreak they were livelier,
and were seen playing about in the open water every now and again, uttering their low piping
call-note. When swimming, and running over the floating plants, they bore great resemblance
to the Spotted Crake." Von Heuglin adds that the food of this species consists of worms,
spiders, flies, small mollusks, and larvse of various kinds ; and Naumann, who dissected several
specimens, states that he found in their stomachs insects, insect-larvae, small mollusks, and coarse
sand grains," and very seldom vegetable matter. The larva? of gnats seem, he says, to be the
staple article of food with this species.

The nest of this Crake is placed on the ground in a swampy locality, and is exceedingly
hard to find. It is usually carefully concealed in a bunch of sedge, the points of which are bent
together so that a basket-shaped hollow is made in the centre, which is internally carefully lined
with finer leaves of aquatic plants and dried grasses, and, though carelessly constructed, is by no
means very loosely made. If the eggs are much incubated the female sits close, and only slips
off when the intruder is quite close to the nest. The eggs, usually from seven to eight in
number, are olivaceous ochreous in colour, so closely dotted and marbled with olivaceous brown
that frequently but little of the ground-colour is visible ; and some of them are much darker
than others. In size those in my collection vary from l^g- by f § to 1^ - by ff inch.

The specimens figured are the adult male and young female above described, and are in my
own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, d. Valencia, Spain, March 19th, 1872. b, ?. Valencia, May 1871. c, <s . Catarroja, Valencia, March
18th, 1872. d, J . Catarroja, April 13th, 1872. e, 6 . Catarroja, April 11th, 1872 {Martin), f. Malta,
March 30th, 1864 (C. A. Wright). g,?juv. Karabolska, S.E. Ural, August 14th, - 1872 {Meves).
h. Alexandria, Egypt, December 21st, 1876 (F. S.Allen), i, d. Tangier (Olcese). k, I. Madagascar
(F. Plant).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, d , b, 2 ad., c, 6 juv. Malaga, July 29th, 1871 (Rios) . d, $ ad. Catarroja, Valencia, March 28th, 1872
(Martin), d, 6 , e, $,/, ? ad., g, $ im. Near Valencia, March 3rd to 21st, 1873 (Martin), h, i, $ ad.

282

8

Malaga, September 5th, 1873 (Bios). j,6>k,%. Cattaroja, March 19th and 25th, 1874 {Martin).
I, 2,m, 6. Malaga, July 30th and September 25th, 1874 (Rios).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.

a, $ . Catarroja, Valencia, April 13th, 1872 (Martin), b, 6 . Algiers, April 10th, 1856 (H. B. T.). e. South
Africa (E. L. Layard). d, 6 juv. N.W. India, September 7th, 1867 (W. E. Brooks), e. Chusan, China,
May 1862 (R. Swinhoe).

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283

POEZANA TAKVA.

(LITTLE CRAKE.)

Rallus parvus, Scop. Ann. i. Hist. Nat. p. 126 (1769).

Mallus mixtus, Lapeyr. Mamm. et Ois. de la Haute-Garonne, p. 38 (1799).

Gallinula pusillus, Bechst. Orn. Taschenb. ii. p. 340 (1803, nee Pall.).

Gallinula pusilla, Bechst. Gemeinn. Naturg. Deutschl. iv. p. 484 (1809, nee Pall.).

Gallinula minuta, Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppl. fol. 9 (1813, nee Pall.).

Gallinula foljambei, Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppl. fol. bb (1813).

Zapomia minuta, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1816, nee Pall.).

Zaporina minuta, Forst. Synop. Cat. of Brit. Birds, p. 59 (1817).

Rallus peyrousei, Vieill. Nouv. Diet, xxviii. p. 562 (1819).

Crex pusilla, Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 80 (1823, nee Pall.).

Ortygometra olivacea, Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xii. pt. i. p. 226 (1824).

Zapomia pusilla, Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xii. p. i. p. 231 (1824, nee Pall.).

Phasaridion, Kaup (Gallinula pusilla pygmcea), Natiirl. Syst. p. 173 (1829).

Ortygometra pusilla, Bp. Comp. List, p. 53 (1838, nee Pall.).

Ortygometra minuta, Keys. & Bias. Wirbelth. Eur. p. 68 (1840, nee Pall.).

Porzana minuta, Bp. Ucc. Eur. p. 65 (1842, nee Pall.).

Phalaridium pusillum, Meves, Journ. fur Orn. 1875, p. 433, nee Pall.

Poule d'eaupoussin, French; Schiribilla, Italian; Gallotz-terz, Maltese; kleines Sumpfhuhn,
Sumpfschnerz, German ; Dvasrg-Sumphone, Danish ; Lilla Sumphona, Swedish.

Figuroe notabiles.

Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 36; Kjeerb. Orn. Dan. taf. 38, and Suppl. pi. 18; Fritsch, Vog.
Eur. taf. 32. figs. 4, 5 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 238 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl.
pi. 76. fig. 5; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 345; Eoux, Orn. Prov. pi. 331.

6 ad. Porzana bailloni similis sed major, corpore supra magis olivaceo et minus albo guttato : tectricibus
alarum immaculatis : remige extimo in pogonio externo fusco immaculato : corpore subtiis sicut in
Porzana bailloni picturato, sed abdomine imo et subcaudalibus indistincte fasciatis : rostro viridi-flavo,
ad basin rubro : iride coceinea, : pedibus viridibus.

5 mari dissimilis : corpore supra sicut in mare colorato sed pallidiore : capitis lateribus griseo-schistaceis :
mento et gula superiore albis : gutture, pectore et abdomine ochraceo-carneis : abdomine imo et sub-
caudalibus sicut in mare picturatis sed pallidioribus.

Adult Male (Southern France, May). Resembles Porzana bailloni, but is larger, the upper parts are more
olivaceous and less spotted, these white spots being confined to the back, the "wing-coverts being
unspotted, and the black markings are more blurry ; first primary dark brown on both webs, and not

externally marked with buffy white as in Porzana bailloni ; underparts deep slate-blue, but the lower
abdomen and under tail-coverts are less distinctly barred than in Porzana bailloni ; bill yellowish green,
except at the base, where it is bright red; iris blood-red ; legs green. Total length about 8 inches,
culnien - 75, wing 4 - 15, tail 23, tarsus 13, middle toe with claw T75.

Adult Female (Southern France, May) . Differs from the male in lacking the blue colour on the underparts ;
upper parts as in the male, but rather lighter ; sides of the head greyish slate-blue ; chin and upper
throat white ; lower throat, breast, and abdomen flesh-pink, with an ochreous tinge ; the lower abdomen
and under tail-coverts marked as in the male, but paler.

Young (Lower Volga, April) . Eesembles the young of Porzana bailloni, but may be distinguished by its
larger size, by the absence of the broad white margin to the first primary ; and the sides of the head,
neck, and breast are paler, being almost pure white, slightly marked on the margins with blackish grey.

The range of the Little Crake is more restricted than that of Baillon's Crake ; for it is not found
so far east, west, or south as that bird. It occurs throughout Europe, but only ranges into
Western Asia and North Africa.

In Great Britain it is only known as a rare straggler ; and there is no instance on record of
a nest having been found here, though it may very possibly have bred with us. It was first
known as a British species in 1809, a specimen having been shot near Ashburton, in Devonshire.
Besides this, Yarrell (Brit. B. iii p. 117) enumerates the following occurrences, viz.: — one,
Norfolk, obtained by Mr. Foljambe in May 1812 ; one near Chelsea ; one shot on the 6th May,
1807, on the banks of the Yore, near Wensley, Yorkshire, but not recorded until 1823; one,
Bramwell, near Cambridge, in March 1826; one recorded in 1829 as having been obtained in
1807 in Ardwick meadows, near Manchester; one recorded in 1834 by Mr. Hoy as having been
shot near Yarmouth; one near Shoreham in October 1835; and one recorded by Mr. W. C.
Williamson in 1836 as having been killed near Scarborough. Besides these, however, there
are several later instances of its occurrence ; for it has been said to have been obtained near
Hastings in April 1859, at Seaford in March 1848, near Fevensey in March 1862, in Somerset
early in October 1870, and in Hampshire; for Mr. Mansel-Pleydell says that two were shot by
Mr. G. Churchill, of Alderholt Park, Fordingbridge, but that he knows of no other instance of
its occurrence in that county. It appears to have occurred more frequently in the eastern
counties than elsewhere ; and Mr. Stevenson enumerates the following instances of its occur-
rence in Norfolk (several of which, as will be seen, are also given above), viz. : — one stated by
Montagu to have been discovered in a poulterer's shop early in May 1812 by Mr. Foljambe ;
one shot at Buckenham Ferry in August 1827; one, an immature bird, obtained at Neatishead
in March 1828; one shot on Oulton Broad, near Lowestoft, in 1830 — these three recorded by
Mr. Lombe. Hunt states that one was shot by Mr. Girling in the neighbourhood of Scottow,
and one killed at Bradestone, prior to 1829. According to Mr. Joseph Clarke, of Saffron Walden,
two were shot by Mr. Richers near Yarmouth, March 1833; and Captain Glasspoole killed two
on Horsey Broad in 1833. Between 1833 and 1847, Mr. Stevenson remarks, it is not recorded
as having been obtained ; but one was shot on the 30th of March in that year on the wet marshes
adjoining the large sheet of water at Heigham Sounds; one was shot by Mr. J. Dickens at
Dilham Fen on the 26th of April 1852; one was shot at Catfield on the 8th May 1855; and

285

Mr. Harting states that he saw one, but did not secure it, near the Bure, about five miles from
Yarmouth, on the 25th of October, 1867.

Keferring to these recorded occurrences, Mr. Stevenson writes (B. of Norf. ii. p. 399) as
follows : — " With the exception of the Bradestone bird recorded by Hunt, which was possibly
a Baillon's Crake, I see no reason, from the authorities I have quoted, to doubt the authenticity
of any of the above instances. With no less than thirteen occurrences, then, in one county, of a
species usually considered so rare, the Little Crake can scarcely be regarded as a merely accidental
visitant. If the habits also of the larger and certainly more abundant species of Bail are
difficult of observation, how much more so those of the Little and Baillon's Crake ! whose small
size and strictly aquatic nature afford every possible means of concealment, render their capture
at any time a mere matter of chance. Judging, therefore, from the localities in which our
Norfolk specimens have been found, and from the fact that the dates, where known, correspond
exactly with the spring and autumn migrations of the Spotted Rails, we may, I think, fairly class
the Little Crake (and the same reasoning applies equally to Baillon's) amongst those birds of
passage which, for a time at least, periodically frequent our marshes. It is true the nest and
eggs of the Little Crake have never been identified in Norfolk, nor, until the summer of 1866,
was there any record of those of Baillon's Crake having been taken ; yet in the very same locality
(Heigham Sounds) where eggs presumed to be of the latter were discovered by the merest
accident, both species have been observed in spring, and both in all probability remain occa-
sionally with us to breed. It should, however, be remarked that, with one exception (the
locality of which is unknown), the specimens here recorded, though produced within the bounds
of the ' broad ' district, were all found in the vicinity of the smaller broads, or on the ' ronds '
bordering upon the Bure and Yare, where it is obvious the chances of flushing them would be
infinitely greater than amidst the interminable tracts of reeds which characterize our larger
waters. The three examples killed in March were evidently met with on their first arrival, and
might, or might not, have continued their journey northwards, while the one in April and the
two in May would most probably have remained to breed. Again, the one killed in August had
possibly passed the summer with us; and Mr. Harting's bird, in October, may have visited us on
its passage southwards." Mr. Cordeaux states (B. of Humber Dist. p. 144) that he flushed a
Crake in October 1870 near Great Cotes, which he is sure was a Little Crake, but he did not
obtain it.

In Scotland the present species has occurred only once. Mr. Robert Gray says (B. of W. of
Scotl. p. 334) that Mr. Thomas Edward, of Banff, informed him that one was found dead in a
plantation in the parish of Grange, Banffshire, on the 12th March 1852. It has also, according
to Canon Tristram, been obtained once in Ireland, at Balbriggan, on the 11th March 1854. The
Little Crake has not been met with in the Faeroes, and in Scandinavia it is of very rare occur-
rence, for it has not been observed in Norway; but Mr. Meves shot one on Gottland in 1856,
and, according to Westerlund (Peterm. Mitth. 1870, p. 374), on the 17th June 1862 it was found
breeding in the southern part of Kalmar Lan, in Sweden. In Denmark, however, it has been
met with more frequently; for Collin says (Skand. Fugl. p. 554) that, according to Boie, it has
occurred at Kiel, Scheel says that it has also been met with on Moen, and Teilmann states that it
has also occurred on the Yilslev Enge. In Finland the Little Crake has not occurred ; and

2o

Mr. Sabanaeff informs me the present species is rare in Central Russia, but it breeds in the
Zaraisk district, government of Riazan, and occurs near Moscow, on passage, in spring. Accord-
ing to Meyer (Vog. Liv- u. Esthl. p. 217) it breeds, though rarely, in the south of Livonia, and it
also occurs in Courland. In Poland, Mr. Taczanowski says, it is much rarer than the Spotted
Crake, and he is unaware, he adds, whither it migrates. Naumann says (Vog. Deutschl. ix.
p. 555) that the Little Crake " is commoner in the south and east than in the north of Germany.
In Austria, Silesia, Saxony, on the Rhine and Main, it is not rare, as also in Anhalt." It
appears, however, according to Von Homeyer and Dr. Holland, to breed in Pomerania, and its
nest has been (J. f. O. 1863, p. 288) taken in Mecklenburg. It has been observed in West-
phalia, Oldenburg, near Hamburg, and in Holstein, near Brunsbiittel. In Southern Germany it
is said to be not uncommon during the breeding-season, as, for instance, in Wurtemberg,
Bavaria, and Silesia. Tobias states that it breeds in Ober-Lausitz ; Count Rodern found it
breeding near Glogau ; and I give below particulars of its nidification in Nieder-Lausitz, as
observed by Dr. Kutter. Dr. Fritsch states (J. f. O. 1871, p. 381) that it nests on ponds near
Frauenberg, in Bohemia, and used formerly to occur near Pardubic, on the Ceperka pond, and
on the Bohdanec, as is obvious from the number of specimens in the collection at Pardubic.
Otherwise it is rare in Bohemia ; for Lokaj only obtained two, and Dr. Fritsch himself never
procured a fresh-killed example. In Transylvania, Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown write
(Ibis, 1875, p. 418), " the Little Crake is not uncommon. We probably saw it at Zah and
Tohat. The specimens in the Museum at Klausenburg were got at Szamosfalva. Not rare at
Gyeke." Natterer obtained it in Illyria, and Hanf in Styria, in April and May. It breeds in
Upper Austria and in several parts of Hungary, and is said to be common in the Bukowine
during the breeding-season. Passing north, again, I find it recorded by Mr. Cordeaux (Ibis,
1875, p. 186) as having occurred once, on the 22nd April 1854, in Heligoland; and Von
Wickevoort-Crommelin, in his excellent monograph of the Rails found in the Netherlands,
writes (p. 24) that he obtained a young male, killed near Zwartsluis, in Overijssel, in the
Netherlands, on the 9th September 1872. It is, he adds, very rare in Belgium, where it has
been observed in Brabant and near Liege, and has also occurred in Luxemburg. It occurs
regularly in the north of France, and is of irregular occurrence in Picardy and Lorraine, where
it has been found near Metz and Nancy. It is also found, though rarely, in the departments of
the Eure-et-Loire, Seine-et-Marne, and Yonne. It occurs on passage in the Jura and near
Lyons, and is met with regularly in the west of France, and is said to be common in the
department of the Charente-Inferieure. According to Mr. A. Lacroix, it is found on passage in
the French Pyrenees, breeds rarely in Herault and Tarne-et-Garonne, and regularly in Aude
and the Pyrenees orientales. It arrives in the south of France late in March; and a few
pairs breed there. Bouteille states (Orn. Dauph. p. 207) that it also breeds in Dauphine.
Professor Barboza du Bocage says it is rare in Portugal ; but it is tolerably common in Spain.
Mr. Howard Saunders informs me that its range is more eastern than that of Baillon's Crake ; it
seems to be most abundant on the spring passage near Valencia, and on the autumn one near
Malaga, but he never met with it west of the latter place.

Passing eastward again, I find it recorded as common on passage in Savoy, where it also
breeds ; and it also breeds commonly throughout Italy. It is also recorded from Sicily by

287

Benoit, and is common on the spring passage in Sardinia. In Malta, Mr. C. A. Wright states
(Ibis, 1864, p. 150), it is "rather plentiful in spring in some years, but less so in autumn.
Oftenest met with in March, in low humid localities at the head of the Great Harbour." Lord
Lilford saw a specimen killed near Butrinto, in the Ionian Islands ; and, according to Dr. Kruper,
it occurs in Greece ; but he is not sure if it breeds there, and remains also over winter. It is
rare in Corfu, where it arrives in April ; but in Crete, Colonel Drummond-Hay says, it is
common late in that month. Messrs. Elwes and Buckley state (Ibis, 1870, p. 332) that it is
found near Constantinople, but is not abundant. Colonel Irby says that it is common in April
in the Crimea; and it breeds not uncommonly, Goebel states (J. f. O. 1871, p. 145), near Uman,
in Southern Russia. I do not find any record of its occurrence in Palestine or North-east
Africa, though it is said by Loche to be resident in Algeria ; and it has not been observed by
Favier in Morocco.

To the eastward the present species is found as far as North-west India. Dickson and Ross
obtained it at Erzeroum ; Dr. Severtzoff states that it occurs in Turkestan ; and Mr. A. O. Hume
writes (Stray Feathers, i. p. 251) that " this little Rail is very abundant in Sindh. In some of
the inland pieces of water (that at Dost Ali for instance) a dozen may be seen at the same time,
busy feeding, running on the lotus-leaves, or again swimming rapidly from leaf to leaf."
Mr. Hume adds that the boatmen told him that it breeds regularly in Sindh.

The Little Crake has not been met with in Dauria, and consequently it cannot be the Rallus
pusillus of Pallas. Besides, Pallas's description is somewhat indefinite and will suit equally well
for Baillon's Crake, to which species it not improbably refers, as this latter Crake is found in
Dauria; but as Pallas's name has been in such general use for the present species, and the
description is by no means a good one, it cannot well be used for Baillon's Crake, and must be
discarded altogether. Scopoli's description of JRallus parvus quite clearly refers to the Little
Crake, especially as he speaks of the base of the bill being red, and in any case takes precedence
of Pallas's name. I have therefore no hesitation in using it for the present species.

In general habits the Little Crake closely resembles its allies Porzana maruetta and
Porzana bailloni ; and like those it is very secretive, living in overgrown marshy places, where
it finds excellent shelter, from which it is extremely difficult to drive it out ; for it will only take
wing when hard pressed, and usually seeks safety on foot, taking refuge in the densest reed-
growth. It swims with ease and grace, but flies heavily, and, after having traversed a short
distance, drops into the shelter of the reeds again. As a rule it is rather more frequently seen
in open pieces of water than Porzana bailloni ; and Naumann remarks (I. c.) that it will not
unfrequently show itself in the open when any one is near, and utter its call-note as if in
defiance. Its call-note is tolerably loud, and is described by Naumann as resembling the syllables
Mk kik kik frequently uttered, not unlike the call of Picus medius. In breeding-habits it closely
resembles Baillon's Crake ; and its nest and eggs are not unlike those of that species.

Dr. Kutter, to whom I was indebted for the first eggs of the Little Crake I possessed, has
published (J. f. O. 1865, pp. 334-341) some very detailed and interesting notes respecting the
nidification of the present species, of which he took several nests on a pond near Cottbus. The
first nest found by him, which contained three eggs, he describes as being carefully constructed
of dry, worn flag-leaves, rather flat in form, the outside diameter being 5^", the diameter of the

2o2

288

6

cup 3^", and the depth of the cup 1". It was placed about a foot above the surface of the water,
and rested against a dead alder branch, being carefully concealed by the surrounding reed-grass.
A second nest was rather carelessly built on dead aquatic herbage, only a few inches above the
water ; and another was built of dry sedge-grass. So far as he could ascertain, eight seems to be
the full complement of eggs deposited by this Crake. I possess a tolerably large series of its
eggs, which differ from those of Baillon's Crake in being larger and paler, the ground-colour
more ochreous, and the surface-spots more scattered.

The specimens figured are the adult male and female above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, d ,b, <3,c, 2. Southern France, September. d,e,f, 2,9, 6. Southern France, May. h, (S,i,juv. Silesia.
k,juv. Lower Volga, April 1876. I, 2 . S. Russia, May {W. Schluter).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.
a, cf. Balbriggan, Ireland, July 1859 (H. A. Hamilton).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, <S . Malaga, August 1868 (Rios). b, 6 ad. Catarroja, Valencia, March 26th, 1872 {Martin), c, 6 , d, §,
e, <3 , f, 2 , g, 6 ad. Catarroja, Valencia, March 12th to 23rd, 1873 {Martin), h, i, j, ?. Catarroja,
March 8th and 16th, 1874 {Martin).

289

Genus CBEX.

Hallus apud Brisson, Orn. v. p. 159 (1760).

Gallinula apud Latham, Ind. Orn. ii. p. 766 (1790).

Crex, Bechstein, Gemeinn. Naturg. Deutschl. i. p. 461 (1805).

Ortygometra apud Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1816).

This genus contains but a single species, our common Corncrake, which inhabits the Paraparetic
and Ethiopian Begions, occurring as a very rare straggler in the Nearctic Begion. It differs
from the species belonging to the genus Porzana in its habits (for it frequents dry instead of
damp localities) as well as in structure. It is usually found in corn-fields, meadows, &c; and,
owing to its form, it is able to run amongst the standing corn and high grass with ease. Its
call-note is a peculiar harsh call, resembling the sound produced by drawing a stick across a
strong comb. It feeds on insects of various kinds, beetles, spiders, flies, and worms. In its
nest (which is merely a depression of the ground, sparingly lined with a few straws) it deposits
numerous buffy-white eggs blotched and spotted with rufous. The young are able to follow the
parent bird immediately they leave the shell, and are soon able to take care of themselves.

Crex pratensis, the type of the genus, has the bill much shorter than the head, stout,
compressed, much higher than broad at the base, considerably decurved, and slightly notched at
the tip ; nasal groove very large ; nostrils median, elongated-oblong ; wings rather short, broad,
rounded, the first quill about equal to the fourth, the second longest ; tail short, rounded, soft,
and weak ; legs stout, moderately long ; tarsus scutellate ; the lower part of the tibia bare for a
short distance ; toes rather long and slender ; claws compressed, slender, curved, acute.

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CEEX PEATENSIS.

(LAND-RAIL.)

Rallus genistarum sive ortygometra, Briss. Orn. v. p. 159, pi. xiii. fig. 2 (1760).

Rallus crex, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 261 (1766).

Le Rale de terre ou de genet, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 146- (1781).

Gallinula crex (L.), Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 766 (1790).

Crex pratensis, Bechst. Gemeinn. Naturg. Deutschl. i. p. 461 (1805).

Ortygometra crex (L.), Leach, Syst. Cat. B. & M. Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1816).

Crex herbarum, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 694 (1831).

Crex alticeps, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 694 (1831).

Corn-Crake, Land-Bail, English ; Treun-re-treun, Treunna, Gaelic ; Rale des jares, French ;
Codornizao, Portuguese ; Guia de los codomices, Spanish ; Re di quaglie, Italian ; Gallotz
ta Germania, Maltese; Wiesen-Sumpfhuhn, Wiesenralle, German; Kvartelkoning, Dutch;
Vagtelkonge, Danish ; Eakurskrivt, Fseroese ; Agerrixe, Norwegian ; Angknarr, Kornknarr,
Swedish ; Ruisradkkd, Finnish ; Dergatsch, Korostell, Bussian.

Figures notabiles.

DAubenton, PI. Enl. 750 ; Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 34 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 38 ; Frisch,
Vog. Deuschl. taf. 212 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 32. figs. 2, 6 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 236 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 45. fig. 2 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 341 ; id. B. of G.
Brit. iv. pi. 87; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 256; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. pi. 91.

j ad. pileo, collo postico et corpore supra cum cauda et supracaudalibus olivaceo-ochraceis et rufescenti-
ochraceis nigro-fusco guttatis : remigibus saturate fuscis rufescenti lavatis : tectricibus alarum cinna-
momeo-ferrugineis : mento albido, capitis lateribus griseo-caeruleis, vitta. per oculum ducta pallide
brunnea. : gula, gutture et pectore schistaceo-cinereis vix fusco tinctis : colli lateribus cinereo-ocbraceis
rufescente fusco guttatis, hypochondriis rufescenti-fuscis albo fasciatis : abdomine et subcaudalibus
albis, bis rufescente fusco notatis : rostro fusco-corneo : iride brunnea : pedibus pallide griseo-carneis.

2 ad. mari similis sed sordidior, nee gutture et pectore sehistaceo-cinereis, sed pallide fusco-cinereis.

Adult Male (Hampstead, April) . Crown blackisb brown marked witb warm ocbreous j sides of tbe head
blue-grey, with a pale brown band passing through tbe eye to the neck ; hind neck, back, scapulars,
rump, tail, and upper tail-coverts blackish brown, the feathers broadly margined with greyish ochreous
and reddish ochreous ; quills dark brown witb a rufous tinge ; wing-coverts rusty red ; chin white ;
throat and breast blue-grey tinged with brown ; sides of the neck greyish ochreous marked with dark
reddish brown; flanks reddish brown barred with white; abdomen and under tail-coverts white, the
latter marked with reddish brown; bill dark brown; iris clear brown; legs greyish flesh-colour.
Total length about 10'5 inches, culmen 08, wing 5'5, tail 2 - 15, tarsus 1*5.

2s

292

Adult Female (Hampstead, April). Differs from the male in being paler in colour, and lacking most of the
blue-grey colour on the throat and breast ; but the ash-grey stripe over the eye, and this colour on the
side of the head, are there.

Adult in autumn (Hampstead, September) . Differs from the adult in spring dress in having the spots on
the upper parts smaller, the underparts paler, and the flanks less marked with rufous.

Young Male (September). Resembles the old male; but the colours are duller, the chin brownish grey, the
upper parts are slightly darker, and the larger wing-coverts are slightly barred with white.

Young in down (Boel, Jutland). Covered with close, rather short, deep-black down; a few obsolete dots of
white on the back, an irregular yellowish brown band along each side of the abdomen, and a light spot
on each ear.

Throughout the whole of Europe and Western Asia the Corn-Crake is generally distributed,
ranging up nearly into the arctic circle during the summer season ; and in the autumn it migrates
into Africa as far south as the Cape colony.

In Great Britain it is very generally distributed during the summer season, and breeds in
every county in the United Kingdom in suitable localities, being, however, probably more
common in the southern portions of England than elsewhere, arriving late in April or early in
May, and leaving again in September or October. In Scotland, Mr. Robert Gray writes (B. of
W. of Scotl. p. 331), the Corn-Crake " is found in every district, cultivated and uncultivated, on
the western mainland, from the Mull of Galloway to Cape Wrath, and also over the whole
extent of both groups of islands, and all the rocky islets of the west coast, extending to Heisher
rocks, the Monach islands, and St. Kilda." In Shetland, Dr. Saxby says, they " arrive in con-
siderable numbers about the end of May, and may be heard in every cultivated district through-
out the islands. At the time of their first appearance vegetation has made so slight an advance
that they are easily seen, being quite unable to conceal themselves among the short grass or
corn. I have killed them in autumn as well as in the spring, and have usually found them in
good condition at both seasons." In Ireland, as in England, it is a common and widely distri-
buted summer visitant. It has been stated by some American ornithologists that the Corn-
Crake is a constant visitor to Greenland : but this is certainly an error ; for Professor Reinhardt
writes (Ibis, 1861, p. 11) as follows: — "I am aware of one case in which this bird has been
misguided to Greenland. The specimen (an adult female) was obtained at Godthaab, and pre-
sented to the Royal Museum in 1851. Accordingly I have been somewhat surprised to see that
Mr. Cassin supposes (Reports of Expl. &c, ix. p. 751) the bird to be a constant summer visitor
to Greenland, while it really does not even occur in Iceland as a regular visitor." It is not
included by Professor Newton in his list of the birds of Iceland ; but on the Faeroes it is said to
be a not uncommon spring and summer visitor ; and Mr. Miiller informed Captain Feilden that
he received one from Hoidenor on the 5th October, and another from near Thorshavn on the
17th September. Mr. Miiller possesses eggs taken in the island of Sandoe. In Scandinavia it is
very generally distributed during the summer season. In Norway it breeds throughout the
lowlands up into the polar circle, and is common on the islands off Helgeland and at Bodo. It
also occurs all along the west coast from Jaederen up to the Trondhjemsfiord, and is met with on

293

the fells as high as arable land is found. North of the polar circle, Mr. Collett states (Nyt Mag.
for Naturvid. b. xxiii. p. 175), it is of irregular occurrence. In 1873 it was found breeding on the
island of Rollen, a few miles north of Tromso, but has not been seen there of later years, though
one was shot on Tromso, in 69° 40', on the 15th October 1875. As an instance of a late brood
he mentions that a nest, containing twelve fresh eggs, was taken on Jsederen early in September.
It arrives in Southern Norway early in May, leaving again in the late autumn, the young birds
remaining sometimes till the end of September ; and Mr. G. Brandt observed this bird in the
Surendale in the middle of October 1871. Throughout Sweden, Professor Nilsson says, the
Corn-Crake is found from Southern Skane up into the arctic circle ; but it is somewhat local in
its distribution, for in some places it is never heard. In Finland, according to Dr. Palmen, it is
common in the southern districts, ai'riving about the 21st of May, and leaving late in August or
early in September, and is met with northwards in Kankaanpaa, Nyslott, and Ladoga-Karelen,
but becomes rare in Southern Osterbotten, in the district between Wasa and Gamla Karleby,
and has been met with sparingly near Uleaborg. In 1870 it was met with all the summer in
a district in Pudasjarvi; and Sahlberg observed it in September of the same year between
Paanajarvi, in Kuusamo, and at Soukelo, in South-west Russian Lapland, close to the arctic
circle. In 1868, according to Mr. Knobloch, a nest, with eight eggs, was found in Muonioniska,
in 68° N. lat. In Russia it is generally distributed in the central districts, and is found in the
Archangel Government at Lake Onega, near Wuitegra; but I do not find it recorded from
Archangel itself. Mr. SabanaefF informs me that it is found in the Olonetz and Perm Govern-
ments up to about 60° N. lat. In the Ural this gentleman found it less common than elsewhere.
In Poland it is, Mr. Taczanowski writes, very common, arriving early in May and leaving about
the middle of October. Throughout the whole of Germany it is very generally distributed in
the summer season ; and Mr. Collin writes that it breeds in many of the cultivated portions of
Denmark, but is most common during the seasons of passage, in May and October. It arrives
in Holland about the middle of May, remains to breed, and leaves again in September and
October. In Heligoland it occurs, Mr. Cordeaux says (Ibis, 1875, p. 186), in April and May,
and again in the middle of August and September during warm weather pretty commonly,
though never in great numbers. Mr. J. van Wickevoort Crommelin states, in his notes on the
Rails of the Netherlands, that it is more common during the breeding-season than the Water-
Rail, and is seen during passage, in September and October, in the maritime dunes. In France
it occurs on passage and breeds, and is said to be to some extent resident in the south of France.
It is said to be a regular visitant to Spain ; but Mr. Howard Saunders states that it does not
breed there; and Colonel Irby writes (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 142) as follows: — "The Land-Rail does
not seem to remain in Andalucia during the breeding-season, as I never heard its well-known
cry ; but I have seen it as late as the 2nd of May. It is not obtained in any abundance, but,
like other Crakes, is, no doubt, more common than it appears to be. It occurs most frequently
in October and February, and, as Favier states concerning it in Morocco, is found during the
winter." Vidal, however, records it as being common in Almeria in the summer season. It
breeds in Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venetia ; but elsewhere in Italy, Salvadori says, it is only
met with on passage. Benoit states that it is more numerous in Sicily in the spring than in the
autumn. Cara says that it is resident in Sardinia ; but Salvadori asserts that he has never

2s2

met with it there in the winter season ; and Mr. A. B. Brooke states (Ibis, 1873, p. 336) that he
never saw or heard any on that island. I have received specimens from Corsica; and Mr. C. A.
Wright states (Ibis, 1864, p. 150) that it is not uncommon in Malta, arriving early in the spring
and appearing again in the autumn. Lord Lilford records it as occurring sparingly in Corfu in
April and September ; and Dr. Kruper says that it occurs in Greece only on passage, but that
possibly a few may remain there all winter.

Throughout Southern Germany it is found almost everywhere during the breeding-season.
In Styria it is more numerous some seasons than in others, and breeds there, arriving early in
May and leaving late in September or early in October, some few remaining until the first week
in November. Dr. Fritsch states (J. f. O. 1871, p. 381) that it is common throughout Bohemia
in fertile localities during the breeding-season, leaving in the late autumn ; and the Bitter von
Tschusi-Schmidhofen, referring to its occurrence in Austria, says (J. f. O. 1871, p. 119) that in
1867 it was very numerous near Arnsdorf, there being then many clover-fields; but in 1868,
1869, and 1870 it was not seen, as all the clover-fields were sown with grain. Messrs. Danford
and Harvie-Brown record it (Ibis, 1875, p. 418) as common everywhere in Transylvania, and
migratory; and it is found in Turkey and in the countries skirting the Lower Danube. In
Southern Russia Mr. Goebel says (J. f. O. 1871, p. 145) he has only seen it on passage, and in
the spring it is generally seen in meadows where there is an old growth of grass, whereas in the
autumn it occurs in the oat- and buckwheat-fields.

In Asia Minor and Palestine it appears to be resident. Strickland says that it winters near
Smyrna ; Dr. Kruper remarks that his servant shot one near there on the 22nd of February ; and,
according to Canon Tristram (Ibis, 1868, p. 327), it is universally diffused and met with at all
seasons in Palestine. In North-east Africa it occurs as a winter visitant. Captain Shelley writes
that in Egypt it may be met with singly in the clover-fields, but is not plentiful ; and Von Heuglin
says that it arrives in Egypt and Arabia late in August or early in September, and ranges far into
the interior in the winter. He met with it in September near Chartum ; and Lefevre observed it
in the province of Wodscherat, in Abyssinia, in the same month. It passes northward, again, in
March and April ; and Von Heuglin has seen stragglers in Lower Egypt early in May. In Algeria
it is, to some extent, sedentary, and a few pairs breed on the humid plains ; but it is chiefly met with
on passage; and, according to Favier (fide Colonel Irby, I. c), it is found in Morocco on passage,
crossing the Straits during the month of February, returning in August, September, and October,
being occasionally obtained throughout the winter months. Vernon Harcourt records it from
Madeira; and Mr. F. DuCane Godman, referring to its occurrence in the Azores, writes (Ibis,
1866, p. 102) as follows : — " Mr. J. Dabney showed me a stuffed Corn-Crake, which was killed
two or three years previously by flying against a window of his house. I also saw another
stuffed specimen in a collection in Angra, said to have been killed in Terceira." On the con-
tinent of Africa it has been met with as far south as the Cape colony ; for Mr. Layard writes
(B. of South Africa, p. 338) : — " It seems to be not uncommon in Natal, where, according to
Mr. Ayres (Ibis, 1863, p. 331), they are plentiful inland during the summer months. Only one
single specimen, however, has occurred in the Cape colony ; and this was killed on the Cape flats,
near Wynberg, by Mr. H. Dumbleton in 1864;" and he further adds (Ibis, 1869, p. 377) that
Dr. E. Atherstone wrote to him from Graham's Town under date of the 19th April, 1869, saying

295

that it had been very plentiful that season near the coast. Mr. Barratt states (Ibis, 1876, p. 213)
that he received one from the district of Lydenberg, where it is said to be rare ; Mr. T. E.
Buckley (Ibis, 1874, p. 388) obtained one in the Matabili country; and Mr. Gurney writes,
respecting its occurrence in Natal (Ibis, 1863, p. 331), as follows : — " These birds are scarce on the
coast, but become more plentiful inland. They are only found here during the summer months.
Having been once flushed, it is a difficult matter to put them up a second time out of the long
grass ; for, besides running with great swiftness, they have a curious method of evading the dogs
by leaping with closed wings and compressed feathers over the long grass some three or four
yards ; and then running a short distance, they leap again. The scent being thus broken, they
generally evade the most keen-scented dogs ; and so quickly are these strange leaps made, that
it is only by mere chance that the birds are seen."

To the eastward the Corn-Crake is found at least as far as Northern India ; and Pallas
states that it occurs in Siberia as far east as the Lena. According to Dr. Severtzoff it breeds
and occurs on passage in Turkestan. There is a specimen in the British Museum from Persia,
obtained by Major St. John, who believes that he shot it at Tehran ; and Dr. Jerdon writes
(B. of India, iii. p. 727) that "it is stated to have occurred in Northern India, and is common in
Afghanistan. A writer in the ' Bengal Sporting Magazine ' (1842, p. 870) states, I may add, that
it has once been obtained in Oudh. In Eastern Asia it does not appear to have been met with ;
but it has been said to have been once obtained near Nelson, in New Zealand, which, if correct,
is a locality very far outside its normal range. It has also straggled into the Nearctic Region ;
for Professor Baird states (B. of N. Am. p. 751) that it has occurred on several occasions on the
east coast of the United States ; and Wedderburn records it from the Bermudas, stating that a
young male, a bird of the year, was shot on the Pembroke marsh on the 25th October 1847.

Owing to its secretive habits, and being at the same time a rather noisy bird than otherwise,
the Land-Rail is much better known by its harsh, grating note than by any thing else. It is
essentially a frequenter of cultivated districts and of the lowlands, though seldom of really wet,
swampy ground ; for it prefers meadows and corn-fields, where the ground is open and there are
but few bushes or trees. It does not, however, affect very dry soil, but fields where it is neither
very wet nor yet very dry, and especially, it would seem, where a few flowers are intermixed with
the other herbage ; and it evinces a partiality for clover-fields. In most parts of Europe it is a
migrant or, rather, a summer resident, arriving in the spring and leaving again for the south in
the autumn, migrating, it would seem, altogether at night, and when on passage flying at a con-
siderable altitude. Naumann, who was a most careful field-naturalist, assures us that it always
migrates singly, and that in the autumn the old birds leave first, and are followed by their
young. As soon as it arrives in the spring it gives notice of its presence by its well-known call.
It appears to move about at night, and more especially in the early morning and late evening ;
and though it is not unfrequently seen about during the day, yet it prefers, as a rule, to remain
quiet then. Its form enables it to run about with ease amongst the grass and corn ; and it always
evinces a dislike to taking wing, preferring, if possible, to seek security by running ; and a dog
will sometimes spring on and catch one on the ground, so close will they at times crouch
before the dogs. Its cry, resembling the syllables crek, crek, crek, may be heard at all times of
the day, but more especially early in the morning and late in the evening; and it appears to

296

possess considerable power as a ventriloquist, as it is most difficult to judge where the bird is by its
note, which is now loud, now low, as if quite close or at a considerable distance. When uttering
its cry the bird usually stands still, the neck rather drawn in ; but sometimes it calls as it moves
leisurely along. Bechstein relates that a pair which he kept in confinement used to nestle close
to each other and utter a low purring note, something like the purr of a cat. It is a very shy
bird, and evades observation as much as possible, always slipping away to dense cover when
disturbed. Its movements, when not alarmed, are graceful and elegant. It moves sedately,
lifting its feet rather high, jerking its tail, and moving its head backwards and forwards. When
alarmed it stops, crouches, and then starts off with extended neck and body thrown forward, and
is soon out of danger.

It feeds on insects of various kinds, especially lepidoptera, small beetles, spiders, small flies,
and worms, and frequently gorges itself with the latter. A few small stones or some coarse sand
are generally found in its stomach, but seldom any vegetable matter.

Very shortly after the Land-Rail arrives at its breeding-haunts it commences the business of
nidification. The nest, which is usually in a clover-field, a meadow, or a corn-field, is a mere
hollow in the ground lined with a few straws ; and the eggs, from eight to twelve in number, are
usually deposited in June ; and, as a rule, unless the first nest is destroyed, it is said not to breed
twice in the season. The young as soon as they emerge from the shell leave the nest and follow
their mother, and in a few days are able to run with celerity and hide with ease when any
danger threatens.

The eggs of the present species much resemble those of the Water-Rail, but are, as a rule,
rather larger in size, paler in coloration, and more profusely marked. A series in my collection
vary in size from 1^§ by l^- - to lf§ by 1^ inch, and are stone-white in colour, marked with
pale purplish shell-markings, and dark red surface-spots and blotches.

The specimens figured are those above described in spring plumage, and are in my own
collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, b, c, cJ , d, 2 ■ Hampstead, near London, April 28th, 1870. e, ?,/, 6 juv. Hampstead, September (Davy).
g,pull. Boel, Jutland (Benzori).

E Mus. Salvin and Godman.
a, 2 . Park Hatch, Surrey, September 1865. b, 6 . Bodo, Norway, June 20th, 1857 (F. D. Godman).

E Mus. Brit. Beg.

a, d . Mount Hermon (Tristram), b. Tehran, Persia (Major St. John), c. Macamae, Transvaal, Decembe
3rd, 1874. d. Natal (Ayres).

297

Genus POEPHYEIO.

Porphyrio, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 522 (1760).

Fulica apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 258 (1766).

Gallinula apud Latham, Ind. Orn. ii. p. 768 (1790).

Hydrionia apud Bonaparte, Compt. Eend. xliii. p. 599 (1856).

Cesarornis apud Bonaparte, ut supra.

Hydromia apud Hartlaub, Orn. Westafr. p. 243 (1857).

Porphyrio (Gallinula) apud Savi, Orn. Tosc. ii. p. 422 (1874).

The Purple Gallinules are widely distributed, being found in the Palaearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental,
Australian, and Neotropical Eegions, three species being found in the Western Palaearctic
Eegion, one of which is resident in the southern portions of the region, whereas the other two
are merely stragglers from the Ethiopian Eegion.

In habits these birds are said to resemble the Coots, more even than the Water-Hens.
They frequent the borders of lakes, marshy places, and damp, wet localities which are covered
with dense aquatic vegetation, where they can find ample opportunities of concealment. They
keep close to the reed-thickets, and are hard to flush, even with a dog ; and when they rise they
flap heavily for a short distance. They are not companionable ; and each pair keep to their own
small domain, brooking no intrusion from others of their own species. They swim with ease,
and climb about amongst the tall reeds with the greatest facility. Their call-note is a deep,
loud, almost trumpet-like sound, which is frequently uttered at night. Their food consists of
seeds and grains of various kinds, grass-shoots, aquatic insects, reptiles, &c. ; and some authors
say that they feed on fish. They nest amongst the dense aquatic vegetation where they live,
building a nest resembling that of the Coot, and deposit several stone-ochreous eggs, blotched
with violet-grey and deep brownish red.

Dr. Sclater states (Ibis, 1879, p. 195) that Gmelin (I. c.) never intended the term veterim to
be used as a specific name for our Purple Gallinule, but merely told his readers that the bird he
referred to was the "Porphyrio" veterum, i. e. of ancient writers. Should this be the case, and
the specific name veterum be discarded, as I think it ought to be, then it should stand as
Porphyrio cceruleus (Vandelli), Flor. et Faun. Lusit. Spec, in Mem. da Academ. Eeal de Lisboa,

1797 (not 1780, as stated in the synonymy of that species).

Porphyrio cceruleus, the type of the genus, has the bill shorter than the head, very stout,

much higher than broad at the base, tapering sharply to the point, gape-line nearly straight ;

frontal shield large, roundish ; nostrils subbasal, roundish, lateral ; wings moderate, full, the first

quill about equal to the seventh, the second and third longest ; tail short, rather soft, rounded ;

legs and feet very long and stout; lower part of the tibia bare, tarsus scutellate ; toes very long

and slender ; claws long, slightly curved, acute ; plumage soft, blended, glossy above ; general

coloration in adult dress deep blue.

176

298

500

J &.Keulem&Tis Ht.li

MifcN.HaTihart imp

PURPLE GALLINULE.

PORPHYRI0 VETERUM.

299

POKPHYKIO VETERUM.

(PURPLE GALLINULE.)

Porphyrio ccesius pedibus et rostro sanguineis, Barrere, Orn. Spec. Nov. p. 61 (1745).

The Purple Water-Hen, Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds, ii. p. 87, pi. 87 (1747).

Porphyrio veterum, S. G. Gmelin, Reise Russl. iii. p. 79, footnote, pi. 12 (1774).

Fulica ccerulea, Vandelli, Flor. et Faun. Lusit. spec, in Mem. Acad, real Lisb. 1780, p. 37.

La Poule Sultane ou le Porphyrion, Buffon, Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 194, pi. 17 (1781).

Fulica porphyrio, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 699 (1788, partim).

Fulica porphyrio, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-As. ii. 156 (1811).

Gallinula porphyrio, var. /3, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 768 (1790).

Porphyrio hyacinthinus, Temm. Man. d'Orn. ii. p. 698 (1820).

Porphyrio antiquorum, Bp. Comp. List. p. 54 (1838).

Porphyrio ccesius, Schleg. Mus. Pays-Bas, Ralli, p. 52 (1865, ex Barr.).

Taleve-porphyrion, French ; Camao, Portuguese ; Mancon azul, Calamon, Spanish ; Polio
sultano, Italian; Kazir, Moorish.

Figuroe notabiles.

Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds, pi. 87; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 340; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 383;
Bree, B. of Eur. iv. pi. to p. 77.

Ad. pileo, collo postico, alis et corpore supra saturate ultramarino-cseruleis : remigibus in pogonio interne- et
rectricibus nigris vix cseruleo tinctis : capitis lateribus, niento, collo postico et laterali pulchre turcino-
cyaneis : corpore reliquo subtus saturate nigro-cseruleo, subcaudalibus niveis : rostro et scutella frontali
puniceo-rubris, iride rubra, : pedibus incarnato-rubris.

Juv. pileo saturate fuliginoso-cyaneo : collo postico schistaceo-cinereo vix cseruleo tincto : corpore supra sor-
didius quam in adulto colorato, uropygio nigro-schistaceo : capitis lateribus sordide cinereo vix cseruleo
tincto : mento et gula albo-cinereis : corpore subtus reliquo sordide cseruleo-schistaceo, plumis conspicue
cinereo apicatis, abdomine centrali albidiore, subcaudalibus niveis.

Adult Male (Andalucia, Spain) . Crown, hind neck, and entire upper parts deep rich blue : quills on the
inner web and the tail-feathers black with a slight bluish tinge ; sides of the head, chin, throat, and
upper breast rich turquoise-blue, the remainder of the underparts blackish blue, except the under tail-
coverts, which are pure white: frontal plate and bill bright sealing-wax red; iris lake-red; legs flesh-
red. Total length about 18 inches, gape l - 7, wing 9"5, tail 4 - l, tarsus 3 - 5, middle toe with claw 4*8,
claw TO.

Adult Female. Resembles the male.

Young (near Seville, 24th June). Crown sooty blackish blue, hind neck dark slaty grey with a bluish tinge;
upper parts of a duller blue than the adult, the rump slaty blackish ; sides of the head dull ashy grey

300

with a wash of blue ; chin and upper throat ashy white ; rest of the underparts dull bluish slate, the
feathers broadly tipped with ashy grey, the centre of the abdomen whiter, and the under tail-coverts
pure white.

Nestling in down {fide Malherbe, Faun. Orn. Sic. p. 198). Covered with bluish black down, the frontal
plate, bill, and legs being white.

This richly coloured bird inhabits Southern Europe and North Africa, but has been met with, as
a rare straggler, even as far north as the British Isles. Hancock, in his recently published
catalogue of the birds of Northumberland and Durham, says that one was taken alive at Boldon
Flats in August 1863, and another was caught near Ponteland in August 1873; but doubtless
both these were birds escaped from confinement. Mr. Robert Gray says (B. of W. of Scotl.
p. 337) that a specimen was shot near Campbeltown, in Argyleshire, in the first week of December
1863, and sent in the flesh to Mr. McCulloch, birdstuffer, Glasgow, in whose hands he saw it;
and he adds that, after a careful scrutiny, he found nothing in its appearance to lead him to
conjecture that it had escaped from captivity.

With the above exceptions I find no record of its occurrence in Northern Europe ; and it is
only met with as a rare straggler to the central portion of the continent. Landbeck states (Vog.
Wiirt. p. 67) that one was killed in the winter of 1788 at Melchingen, in Sigmaringen, about
two hours' journey from Mossingen, which is the only instance of its occurrence in Germany ;
but it occurs at intervals in the south of France, and is said to frequent the marshes at the
mouth of the Rhone. Professor Barboza du Bocage states that it occurs at Ribatejo, in Por-
tugal ; and the Rev. A. C. Smith says (Ibis, 1868, p. 455) that there are many specimens in the
museums of Lisbon and Coimbra, and that he was informed that it is by no means rare in
Portugal. In Spain, Colonel Irby writes (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 146), " it is very irregular in its
appearance, both as to time and locality. In some years, during January and February, they
are to be seen near Gibraltar in situations where they do not occur at any other time, and are
then doubtless on migration;" and Mr. Howard Saunders says (Ibis, 1871, p. 225) that "though
still tolerably abundant in the marshes of the Guadalquivir, it is almost, if not quite, extinct in
those of Valencia, where it was formerly very numerous ; in the marshes of the island of Majorca
its numbers are also sadly diminished." Mr. A. von Homeyer, in his notes on the ornithology of
the Balearic Isles, says (J. f. O. 1862, p. 430) that it breeds but rarely on Majorca, and he only
twice met with it, once at the Prat and once at Albufera, but he never observed it on the island
of Minorca. It is stated, he says, to be commoner in Majorca in winter than in summer. In
Italy it is recorded as a straggler in the districts of Nice, Liguria, and Tuscany ; and it is tolerably
abundant in Sicily, especially in the marshes of the Anapo and about Lentini. It also occurs in
Sardinia, being common some years and rare in others. It is stated by Temminck to occur in
Greece and the Ionian Islands ; but the authors who have written on Greek ornithology do not
appear to have met with it, and Dr. Kriiper states that nothing is known respecting its occur-
rence there of late years. Nor do I find any mention made of its occurrence in South-eastern
Germany, the Danubian Principalities, or Turkey ; but it is met with in Southern Russia.
Professor Von Nordmann states that he never saw it alive, but that he knows that many have
been obtained at the mouth of the Kouban ; and Pallas speaks of it as being not rare on the

301

Terek. I find no record of its occurrence in Asia Minor ; and as regards its presence in North-
east Africa, although Von Heuglin states that he never saw it in Egypt, Captain Shelley writes
(B. of Egypt, p. 277) as follows: — "The present species is abundant in the Fayoom, where I
have frequently shot it, but have never met with it elsewhere in Egypt, although it is probably
plentiful also in some of the lakes of Lower Egypt." In his description, however, Captain
Shelley states that the back and scapulars are green, from which it would appear that his
specimens are referable to P. smaragdonotus and not to the present species ; and Mr. J. H.
Gurney, jun., informs me that he never obtained P. veterum in Egypt, but only P. smaragdonotus.
In North-west Africa it appears to be common, and breeds in Algeria and near Tangier. Loche
states that it is resident on the large lakes of Algeria, such as Halloula and Fezzara ; and Canon
Tristram says that though scarce at Tuggurt it is far more abundant on the northern lakes-
Favier states (fide Colonel Irby, I. c), it is " chiefly migratory and not common near Tangier,
passing north during the months of February and March, and returning in December and
October. They are occasionally to be seen during the month of January, but not every year."

To the eastward the present species does not appear to range much, if any, further than the
Caspian. Gmelin says that it was found by him commonly throughout Persia, and especially
numerous on the reed-covered shores of the Caspian, where it is resident ; but neither Mr. Blan-
ford nor Major St. John met with it in Persia.

In habits the present species is said to resemble the common Coot. It frequents, like that
species, the borders of lakes and marshy places which are covered with a dense vegetation, where
it hides and is difficult to observe. Colonel Irby says (I. c), " it is a very difficult bird to flush
without a dog ; when they do rise they make a flapping noise, and with a heavy flight merely
take refuge in the nearest thick patch of rushes or wet sedgy jungle, whence, from being Crake-
like in their habits, it is almost impossible to make them rise a second time. They are not to be
met with, except among thick wet rushes. Some are to be found in a few places at the edge of
the marismas of the Guadalquivir." Lord Lilford, who found it by no means rare in the marshes
near Catania, says that it seldom appears in the open water, and haunts the highest and strongest
reed-brakes, where it is difficult and often impossible to shove a boat along. Malherbe says that
it feeds on roots, aquatic plants, and cereals, when in a wild state, but when in captivity it will
eat almost any thing. Its note is deep and loud ; and in general habits it is shy and timid.

It breeds late in March or in April, building a nest which resembles that of the Coot,
amongst the dense aquatic vegetation. Colonel Irby says that in Spain the eggs are deposited
towards the end of April; and Lord Lilford writes (Ibis, 1875, p. 15) as follows: — "I found one
nest of this bird exactly resembling, and not conspicuously larger than, that of our Waterhen,
which is extremely abundant here. This nest was placed on the water in a thick mass of
growing flags, and contained one egg ; this was on March 31st." Canon Tristram compares the
nest to that of the Coot, and says that he never found more than four eggs in one sitting ; but
Favier states that near Tangier the present species breeds in April, and deposits from three to
five eggs. The eggs, of which I possess specimens from Algeria, are warm stone-ochreous in
colour, marked with violet-grey shell-blotches and deep brownish red surface-spots, which are
tolerably generally scattered over the surface of the shell. In size they average about 2^~ - by

l\l inch.

N

302

According to Colonel Irby, the present species feeds entirely on vegetable substances; for
he says that the gizzards of all those he examined contained nothing but vegetable matter
(grass, seeds of rushes, &c.) with a good deal of coarse gravel; but it is stated to suck the eggs
of other species and also to destroy young birds. Mr. O. Salvin writes (Ibis, 1859, p. 361) as
follows : — " It is, I believe, in the habit of destroying the Ducks' nests whenever it can get an
opportunity. Many a time did we leave a nest for the satisfactory determination of the species
to which it belonged, and return to find every egg broken and sucked out. It may be calumny
to ascribe these depredations to P. hyacinthinus ; but I strongly suspect the charge is not
unfounded." Canon Tristram also states that when in Algeria he saw one in the yard of General
Ussuf seize a young duckling in its huge foot and crush its head with its bill, after which it ate
the brains, and left the rest of the carcass untouched.

The specimen figured, on the same Plate with Porphyrio smaragdonotus, is the adult bird
above described, and is in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, $ . Andalucia, Spain (H. Saunders), b. Near Seville, Spain [Llanos), c, 6. Casa Vieja, Southern Spain,
October 28th, 1871 {Colonel Irby).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, $ . Playa de la Resina, Andalucia, from nest with three eggs, April 24th, 1868 (H. S.). b, $ . Near Seville,
May 1870. c, 6 . Seville, October, d, 6. Albufera de Valencia, September, e, ? juv. Near Seville,
June 24th, 1869.

501

6

J-G freuUmaus *Uth.

MAH.Harihart rrop.

GREEN-BACKED GALLINULE.

P0RPHYRIO SMARAGNOTUS.

303

POKPHYKIO SMAEAGNOTUS.

(GREEN-BACKED GALLINULE.)

Porphyrio, Briss. Orn. v. p. 522 (1760).

Fulica porphyrio, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 258 (1766).

La Taleve de Madagascar, D'Aubent. PI. Enl. 810 (1770). -

Gallinula porphyrio (Linn.), Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 768 (1790).

Porphyrio smaragnotus, Temm. Man. d'Orn. ii. p. 700 (1820).

Porphyrio chlorynotus, Vieil. Enc. Method, p. 1050 (1823).

Porphyrio erythropus, Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xii. p. 255 (1824).

Porphyrio madagascariensis, Gray, Gen. of B. iii. p. 598 (1845).

Porphyrio chloronotus (VieilL), A. Brehm, J. f. Orn. 1853, Extrah. p. 103.

Porphyrio smaragdonotus, Licht. Nomencl. Av. p. 97 (1854).

Porphyrio smaragdotus, Bolle, J. f. Orn. 1856, p. 166.

Porphyrio aegyptiacus, Heugl. Syst. Uebers. p. 65. no. 672 (1856).

Figura unica.
DAubenton, PI. Enl. 810.

3 ad. Porphyrioni veterum similis, sed dorso viridi nee cseruleo facile distinguendus : rostro rubro-sanguineo :
iride rubra : pedibus ruhro-carneis.

2 ad. mari similis sed paullo minor.

Adult Male (Fayoom, 7th June). Differs in plumage from Porphyrio veterum only in having the back rich
dark bluish green instead of dark blue ; frontal plate and bill bright sealing-wax-red ; iris deep lake
red; legs dark flesh-red. Total length about 18 inches, gape \'7, wing 10 - 4, tail 4'35, tarsus 3 - 85,
middle toe with claw 49, claw TO.

Adult Female. Undistinguishable from the male in plumage, but, if any thing, a trifle less in size.

This southern representative of the Purple Gallinule, differing in having the back green instead
of blue, is only found, on the north side of the Mediterranean, as an extremely rare straggler.
Baron J. W. von Miiller records its occurrence in the south of France, and states that a peasant
brought to him six specimens alive, which he said he had caught near the sea-coast ; but it is
quite possible that these were birds escaped from confinement. Salvador!, however, says that
there are two examples in the Museum of Turin, originally catalogued under the name of
Porphyrio hyacinthinus, one of which was sent from Sardinia by Signor Prunner on the 29th
November, 1820, and the other, which was also said to have come from that island, lived for
some years in the Royal Park at Stupinigi, and died there in 1849. Subsequently the King of
Italy received several of these birds, said to have come from Sicily ; and one of these was, in 1872,

3d

304

alive in the Royal Park at Mandria, near Turin. Professor Doderlein, however, in spite of every
effort, has not yet had the good fortune to obtain this Gallinule on that island.

On the south side of the Mediterranean, however, throughout Africa, as far south as the
Cape of Good Hope, the present species is very generally distributed, entirely taking the place of
the European Purple Gallinule. It is said by Von Heuglin to inhabit the lagoons of Lower
Egypt in large numbers, and is especially numerous on Lake Menzaleh, where it arrives early in
April and leaves in September or early in October. Dr. Hartmann, however, believes that he
saw it as late as November on the Mareotis lake. It appears probable that Captain Shelley has
confused the present species with Porphyrio veterum in his account of this latter species in Egypt,
as pointed out by Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., who says (Ramb. Nat. p. 186) that he first made its
acquaintance at the Fayoom, where it was frequently to be seen stalking about among the reeds
at the mouth of the Bar-el- Wady canal. M. Filliponi states that it was once Gommon at Damietta,
where it is now rare. It does not appear to occur in Algeria ; but is found in Senegal. Plessing
obtained it at Keta, on the Slave Coast; Anchieta at Benguela; and Andersson says (B. of
Damara Land, p. 325), it " is rather scarce in Damara and Great Namaqua Land, but is pretty
abundant in the lake-regions and on the rivers Teonghe and Okavango ; it is also not uncommon
during the rainy season in Ondonga, where the inhabitants call it ' King of the Waterhens,' and
declare that the moment it utters its deep guttural notes every Waterhen within hearing
immediately responds by its own peculiar cry. The only spot in Damara Land proper where I
found this species at all common, was the great reedy marsh of Omanbonde ; but there it was very
timid, and consequently most difficult to approach. It seldom ventured into the open, but would
warily skirt the dense reedy recesses which formed its favourite haunts, and into which it would
precipitately retreat on the slightest sign of danger. At Lake Ngami and on the river Botletle I
found it less difficult to obtain, probably on account of its greater abundance." Mr. E. L. Layard
says it is " generally distributed throughout the Cape colony, frequenting vleys and large ponds."
Mr. Ayres says (Ibis, 1868, p. 469) that it " is found, though not abundantly, in the more extensive
swamps and lagoons in the colony of Natal, and seems to be pretty generally distributed."
Fornasini and Peters record it from Mossambique; Newton from Mauritius; and although
Mr. J. H. Gurney says that the Madagascar bird differs from the species found on the continent
of Africa, yet, judging from a specimen I have examined from there, I cannot see that it should
be held to be specifically different ; and Professor Schlegel and Messrs. Finsch and Hartlaub do
not grant specific rank to the Madagascar bird. Mr. J. H. Gurney states (Ibis, 1868, p. 470)
that the Madagascar bird has a longer and more powerful bill, and also a longer tarsus and
larger foot; and he gives the difference in measurements of adult males as follows: —

Length, of maxilla

Height of maxilla

Length of

Length of middle

along tomia.

at nostril.

tarsus.

toe with claw.

P. madagascariensis .

. . . 1625

0-625

3-625

4-75

. . . 1375

0-5

3-125

4-25

inches ; but, as will be seen from my description, the bird I have figured, which was obtained in
Egypt, has both the tarsus and middle toe longer even than in the Madagascar examples referred
to by Mr. Gurney.

305

In habits the present species closely resembles P. veterum. Von Heuglin says that it
frequents the flooded rice-fields in pairs, or else is found in dense high reeds, where, however,
there are open places here and there ; but it is quite indifferent as to whether the water is fresh
or brackish. Each pair has its own special district, where they brook no intruder. During the
daytime it is usually found in the dense thickets of aquatic herbage, where it either rests,
usually standing on one foot, or else moves about in search of its food, which consists of cereals,
seeds of various sorts, especially of aquatic plants, shoots of grasses, water-insects, snails, and
frogs ; and it also feeds largely on the eggs of other birds. When moving about, its carriage is
erect, and it frequently jerks its head and tail. It walks slowly with measured steps, the long
toes being held carelessly drooped downwards ; and it glides through the dense masses of aquatic
herbage, and climbs about amongst them, with ease and elegance. Its flight resembles that of the
Waterhen, being short, low, direct, and fluttering, and, as it rises, noisy. It swims well, and
early in the morning and in the dusk of the evening is generally seen in open places on the
water ; but at the least sign of danger it takes refuge amongst the dense reeds. During the
night its loud, somewhat deep, clarinet-like note is frequently heard. Mr. Ayres also writes
respecting this species (I. c.) as follows : — " These birds generally remain amongst the high
rushes and reeds ; but during the winter, in the mornings and evenings, they often leave their
cover to catch the first and last rays of the sun, and they are then frequently to be found perched
on a clump of rushes or reeds; they make many extraordinary noises, most unmusical and quaint.
Their food consists of the inner and soft parts of the shoots of reeds and of other water-plants ;
these may be found in their stomachs chopped up like chaff by their powerful bills, which no
doubt are expressly provided for peeling off the outer bark and hard parts of the plants they
feed upon." I am indebted to Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., for the following notes : — " When the sun
has reached its meridian this Porphyria stalks slowly out of the waving reeds ; or sometimes in
the cool of the early morning his dark form is seen for an instant pressing the covert as he
betakes himself to its friendly shelter, not with an undignified haste, but with a slow and steady
gait, which bends the tall reeds as he passes between them. Not often can he be roused into
greater activity, knowing well what an easy mark his great body presents. Seldom have I seen
one quit the safe mud to risk even a short flight of a few yards ; and never that I remember,
though doubtless able to swim, did one trust himself to the water; but in the morning or at
midday, solemnly marching over the scarce-covered shallows, they seek their aquatic food, like a
great overgrown hen, and yet with no ungraceful bending of the body, usually venturing to about
twenty paces distance from the reeds of safety, seldom more. I have seen it sitting silent and
solitary at the great lake near Cairo, the lake of the Fayoom, where it receives the waters of
the canal Bar-Joseph. It may be found on the opposite shore, though I never saw it there;
but the oppressive heat we had in June, when the thermometer stood at 100°, was a check to
collecting, and our searches on the great lake were so limited that these birds may easily have
been in that dense fringe of water-jungle without our knowing it. Should any future collectors
visit the province of Fayoom a sharp look-out should be kept for the Purple-backed Porphyrio,
the allied species of Europe, whose presence in the land of Ham, asserted more than once, still
needs corroboration. That it should occur there is not unlikely ; but of the six specimens which
I have examined, five had unmistakably green backs, and the sixth, which was alive in a backyard

306

at Cairo, I omitted to take note of. Like other species of this genus they are easily domesticated,
preserve their health well, and by their graceful nodding gait and brilliant tints are thought to
form a pleasing addition to a menagerie. It is probable that, as the Romans of old kept an
allied species in a domesticated state, the Egyptians may have done the same and made a sacred
pet of Porphyrio smaragnotus ; but I never discovered among the hieroglyphics at Edfou or the
cartoons at Beni-Hassen one that I could pronounce to be a portrait of it. That much remains
to be done in this department I am sure ; and a thorough scrutiny of the monuments would in all
likelihood reveal this and a good many other species. These Gallinules have been credited with
a carnivorous propensity ; but the examples of P. smaragnotus which I have some years kept
alive have never shown a symptom of it, though this may be only because they are supplied with
food more to their taste. Some Purple Gallinules (P. veterum) belonging to my father used to
amuse us by lifting to their mouths single grains of barley between their attenuated toes ; but
they have been dead some years, and the habit is not inherited by their successors."

But little is known respecting the nidification of the present species ; and I have never been
fortunate enough to procure its eggs, which doubtless resemble those of Porphyrio veterum ; for
Mr. E. L. Layard says (B. of S. Afr. p. 341) that in the Cape colony " it breeds amongst reeds,
forming a large nest of sedge, and depositing from six to ten eggs of a ruddy brown, spotted with
dark purple-brown ; axis 2" 2'", diam. 1" 6'"."

In the article on Porphyrio veterum I stated that that bird and the present species would be
figured on the same Plate ; but on finding that the size would have to be too much reduced, I
decided on figuring them separately.

The specimen of the present species figured is the one above described, and is in the
collection of Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, ad. South Africa [Burton) .

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.

a. Natal (Ayres). b. Madagascar (Gerrard).

E Mus. J. H. Gurney, jun.
a, i ad. Fayoom, Egypt, June 7th (J. H. G.,jun.).

502

mm

'-_

.J.&KFoleraajis liti.

ALLENS CALLINULE.
PORPHYRIO ALLENI.

Eajihart imp

307

P0RPHYBI0 ALLEN!

(ALLEN'S G-ALLINULE.)

Porphyrio alleni, T. K. H. Thompson, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. x. p. 204 (1842).

Gallinula porphyrio, Temminck, in Mus. Lugd.

Gallinula mutabilis, Sundevall, Ofv. Vet.-Ak. Handl. p. 152 (1850).

" Gallinula porphyrio, Temm.," Hartl. J. f. Orn. 1855, p. 357.

Hydrionia porphyrio (Temm.), Bp. Compt. Rend, xliii. p. 599 (1856).

Cesar ornis alleni (Thomps.), Bp. ut supra (1856).

Hydrornia porphyrio (Temm.), Hartl. Orn. Westafr. p. 243 (1857).

Porphyrio variegatus, A. Guirao, Cat. Aves de la Prov. de Murcia, p. 42, pi. 2 (1859).

Porphyrio minutus, Heugl. J. f. Orn. 1863, p. 169.

Gallinula alleni (Thomps.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Ralli,'j). 38 (1865).

Hydrornia alleni (Thomps.), Salvad. Fauna d'ltalia, Uccelli, p. 233 (1872).

Porphyrio-Gallinula alleni (Thomps.), Savi, Orn. Tosc. ii. p. 422 (1874).

Figurw notabiles.
Giglioli, Icon. Avif. Ital. fasc. ii. ; G. R. Gray Gen. of B. iii. pi. to p. 589 ; Guirao, I. e.

Ad. pileo, nucha et capitis lateribus fuliginoso-nigris vix CEeruleo tinctis ; collo postico et corpore supra
saturate olivaceo viridi tinctis : remigibus et rectricibus nigricantibus saturate cseruleo tinctis : tectri-
cibus alarum saturate turcino-caruleis vix viridi tinctis : gula et corpore subtiis saturate turcino-
cseruleis, abdomine imo et tibiis nigricanti-cseruleis : subcaudalibus exterioribus albis : iride fusco-
rubra, : rostro et pedibus miniatis, scutella frontali pallide viridi.

Jut. pileo, nucha, et collo postico fulvescenti-cervinis, capitis lateribus pallidioribus : dorso, scapularibus et
secundariis intimis saturate umbrinis conspicue fulvo-ochraceo marginatis : uropygio sordide umbrino
viridi-cyaneo tincto : supracaudalibus dorso concoloribus sed angustius marginatis : remigibus fuscis,
extiis sordide viridi-cyaneo marginatis : tectricibus alarum dorso concoloribus sed vix viridi tinctis :
mento, gula. et abdomine centraliter albis : gula, ima, colli lateribus, pectore et hypochondriis fulvo-
ochraceis, subcaudalibus magis rufescentibus : tibiis fere omnino cseruleo-nigris : rostro .et scutella
frontali rufescenti-corneis : iride pallide fusca : pedibus pallide rufescenti-fuscis.

Adult Male (river Niger, August 1859). Crown, nape, and sides of the head black with an indigo-blue
tinge; hind neck, back, and upper parts generally deep olivaceous glossed with dark parrot-green ;
quills and tail blackish tinged with deep cobalt-blue, the wing-coverts cobalt-blue with a greenish
tiuge ; throat and underparts generally deep blue becoming blackish on the lower abdomen and thighs ;
under tail-coverts, except the lowest layer, pure white ; iris rich brownish red ; bill and legs scarlet ;
frontal plate pea-green. Total length about 10 inches, culmen V\, wing 5 - 75, tail 2'75, tarsus 2 - 05,
middle toe with claw 2'6, middle claw 0'6.

Young Female (Alexandria, 27th November 1867) . Crown, nape, and hind neck warm sandy brown with a

6o

308

rufous tinge, the sides of the head paler ; back, scapulars, and inner secondaries deep umber-brown
broadly margined with warm clay-ochreous ; rump dull umber-brown slightly tinged with greenish
blue ; upper tail-coverts and tail like the back, but with narrow margins ; quills brown, externally
margined with dull bluish green ; wing-coverts like the back, but faintly tinged with greenish ; chin,
upper throat, and centre of the breast and abdomen white; lower throat, sides of neck, breast, and
flanks warm ochreous clay, which becomes rather more rufous on the under tail-coverts ; thighs to a
large extent bluish black; bill and frontal plate reddish horn; iris light brown; legs pale reddish
brown. Culmen 1"1, wing 5 - 7o, tail 2'65, tarsus 2'05, middle toe with claw 255, middle claw 0"55.

The tropical portions of Africa appear to be the true home of this species, whence it very
rarely straggles into the Palaearctic Eegion ; but it has been met with often enough to render it
necessary to include it in the present work. The first recorded occurrence in Europe appears to
be that of a specimen which was obtained near Lucca in the autumn of 1857, and sent to
Professor Savi in the flesh, and is now in the Pisa Museum. Since then it has occurred a second
time, also in the Lucca district, a specimen having been procured near Massaciuoli on the 20th
December 1874 by Count G. Ottolini, who presented it to the Museum attached to the College
of Lucca, whence it passed into the national collection at Florence. Dr. Giglioli, who figured
this specimen, says that from the state of its plumage it is evident that it was a wild bird, and
not one escaped from captivity. It has lately transpired that this Gallinule has also been
obtained in Spain as far back as 1854, and was recorded and figured by Don Angel Guirao,
under the name of Porphyria variegatus. This gentleman, who (I. c.) gives a detailed description
and an excellent plate of this specimen, states that it was obtained in the neighbourhood of the
great lake on the south-east coast of Spain known as the " Mar menor," in the autumn of 1854.
Eeferring to this specimen, Mr. Howard Saunders writes to me as follows: — "Although I had
for years been acquainted with Guirao's plate, the bird therein represented was so evidently a
young Porphyrio that for long it never occurred to me to verify the dimensions given and to
ascertain if they agreed with the Purple Gallinule. When I did this and found how small a
bird it was, it at once occurred to me that it must be the young of Allen's Gallinule ; and when
in Spain last May I visited the Museum at Madrid, whither Don Angel Guirao had sent all his
rarer birds, and examined the specimen in question, which is, I am sure, an immature Porphyria
alleni just acquiring some of the greenish feathers of the adult."

In Africa this Gallinule ranges tolerably far south, though it does not appear to reach the
Cape colony. I possess an immature example, purchased in the market of Alexandria by the
late Mr. S. Stafford Allen ; Hedenborg and Von Heuglin met with it on the White Nile ; and
the latter, who obtained it on the Bahr-el-ghazel and the swamps of the Eeg lake, adds that it
occurs sparingly in Abyssinia. I do not find any record of its occurrence in North-west Africa ;
but it has been obtained on the Gold Coast and in Senegal. Mr. R. B. Sharpe states (Ibis,
1870, p. 488) that one was sent to Mr. Swanzy from Fantee; Reichenow obtained it in the
Camaroon delta ; Thompson recorded it from the Niger ; Du Chaillu procured it on the Camma
river, Monteiro at Pembe ; and Professor Barboza du Bocage says that it inhabits Loango and
Angola. The late Mr. C. J. Andersson also sent home two examples, shot on the 5th February
1867 at Ondonga, where, he adds, it was evidently scarce.

I may here mention that, according to Vernon Harcourt, it occurs in Madeira, though

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Mr. Godman does not include it in his list of the resident and migratory birds of that island.
On the east side of the African continent Allen's Gallinule has been recorded from the Zambesi,
from Mozambique by Peters, and from Madagascar, where Professor Newton shot one on the
9th September in some bullrushes near the mouth of the Hivondrona.

In habits Allen's Gallinule is said to resemble closely the common Water-hen, Gallinula
chlorqpus — more closely, perhaps, than it does any of the true Porphyrios. Von Heuglin met
with it in North-east Africa, where, he says, the localities it frequents he only visited between
the months of February and April, and cannot, therefore, decide whether it is resident or not ;
but he adds (Orn. N.O.-Afr. p. 1229), " In its general habits it is a true Water-hen. Its favourite
resorts are the dense reed and papyrus thickets near canals and watercourses where rushes are
abundant. During the daytime it remains hidden in the dense aquatic herbage, and amongst
the thick growth of the Herminieria ; but at evening and morning and during moonlight nights
one may see straggling pairs swimming about on the open water just like Gallinula chlorqpus,
picking up insects and diving about. This Gallinule feeds on aquatic plants and their seeds,
worms, spawn, and probably also small fish. It climbs about amongst the dense reed thickets
with ease, and sometimes carries its food to its bill with its long toes. In the morning and
evening its harsh call-note is not unfrequently heard. It is not easy to shoot, on account of the
difficult ground it frequents ; and wounded birds are easily lost. During the twilight I often
succeeded in driving one into the low rushes, where I could then tread it out. Its flight is
fluttering and laboured."

Professor Barboza du Bocage says (J. f. Orn. 1876, p. 299) that "it utters its call-note when
submerged in the water except its head ; its voice resembles that of a human being ; and as soon
as one bird utters its call, all the rest join in the chorus."

The adult specimen figured is one lent to me by Canon Tristram, and is the bird above
described ; the young bird, being the only one I possess, was given to me by the late Mr. S.
Stafford Allen, who purchased it in the flesh in the market at Alexandria.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E M'us. H. E. Dresser,
a, 5 juv. Alexandria Market, November 27th, 1867 (S. Stafford Allen).

E Mus. II. B. Tristram,
a, 6 ad. River Niger, August 1859.

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311

Genus GALLINULA.

Gallinula, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 3 (1760).

Fulica apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 258 (1766).

Hydrogallina apud Lacepede, Mem. de l'lnst. iii. p. 518. an ix. (1801).

Mallus apud Savi, Orn. Tosc. ii. p. 382 (1829).

Stagnicola apud C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 704 (1831).

This genus is represented in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Nearctic, and
Neotropical Eegions, only one species, however, being found in the Western Palsearctic Region.

They frequent marshes, ponds, streams, &c. where the cover is dense and they can find ample
opportunities for concealment. They are, as a rule, not shy, but are wary, and seek shelter in
the dense reed-thickets directly danger threatens. They swim with ease, sitting very lightly on
the water, and dive equally well, often remaining concealed under the water with only the bill
above the surface to enable them to breathe. They walk with tolerable ease, and climb about
amongst the reeds with great facility, and sometimes perch on a stump or the trunk of a tree
near the water-side. Their flight is heavy and laboured, unless they have risen to a considerable
altitude, when they fly tolerably well. Their call-note is loud, and is frequently uttered at
night when they are on the wing. They feed on aquatic insects, worms, snails, &c, as also on
vegetable substances, such as seeds, tender shoots, &c. They make a somewhat bulky nest
of reeds and grasses, which is placed amongst the aquatic herbage near the water, or rarely on a
tree ; and they deposit numerous clay-yellow eggs, marked and blotched with violet-grey and
reddish brown.

Gallinula cldorojpus, the type of the genus, has the bill about as long as the head, moderately
stout, compressed, tapering, slightly higher than broad at the base ; frontal shield oblong, tumid ;
nostrils linear-oblong, median, submarginal ; wings rather short, concave, rounded, the first quill
about equal to the fifth, the second and third longest ; tail soft, short, rounded ; legs large, the
lower part of the tibia bare ; tarsus stout, scutellate ; toes very long, slender ; the claws long,
slender, compressed, slightly curved, acute.

177

312

503

j.Keulemans litK.

HanViart imp.

MOORHEN.
GALLINULA CHLOROPUS.

318

GALLINULA CHLOROPUS.

(MOORHEN.)

Gallinula, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 3, pi. 1 (1760).

Fulica chloropus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 258 (1766).

Fulica fusca, Linn. torn. cit. p. 257(1766).

La Poule d'eau, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 171, pi. xv. (1781).

Gallinula chloropus (L.), Lath. Ind. Orn. p. 770 (1790).

Gallinula fusca (L.), Lath. op. cit. p. 771 (1790).

Rallus chloropus (L.), Savi, Orn. Tosc. ii. p. 382 (1829).

Stagnicola septentrionalis, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 704 (1831).

Gallinula fusca, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 705 (1831).

Gallinula fiavipes, C. L, Brehm, ut supra (1831).

Gallinula fistulans, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1831).

Stagnicola chloropus (L.), C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 706 (1831).

Stagnicola minor, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1831).

Stagnicola parvifrons, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 331 (1855).

Cearc-uisge, Gaelic ; Poule d'eau, French ; Gallinha de agua, Portuguese ; Gallinella d'acqua,
Italian ; Gallotz prim, Maltese ; Zelga-kahal, Moorish ; griinfussiges Teichhuhn, Wasser-
huhn, German ; Waterhoentje, Dutch ; JR'ddblisset Rbrhona, Danish ; Gronbenet Sum/phone,
Norwegian ; Gronfotad Sumphbna, Swedish ; Kamischnitza, bolotnaia-Kouritza, Russian.

Figures notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 877; Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 38; Kjasrb. Orn. Dan. taf. 38,Suppl.
taf. 18 ; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 209 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 35. figs. 1, 2 ; Naumann,
Vog. Deutschl. taf. 240 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 45. fig. 4 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 342 ;
id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 85; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 252, 253; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb.
pi. 96.

<$ ad. capite et collo saturate cseruleo-sehistaceis : dorso et tectricibus alarum olivaceo-fuscis : remigibus et
rectricibus saturate fuscis, alis anguste albo marginatis et remige extimo extus albo marginato : corpore
subtiis griseo-schistaceo, abdomine imo magis griseo, hypochondriis conspicue albo striatis : subeau-
dalibus albis, centraliter nigris : rostro ad basiu et fronte calva rubris, apice rostri flavo : iride rufa :
pedibus viridibus, armillis rubris.

$ mari similis sed major et coloribus vividioribus.

Adult Female (Hampstead, 28th April). Head, neck, and fore part of the back deep greyish slate-blue ; under-
pays generally rather lighter and greyer; back, wing-coverts, and rump deep olivaceous brown; quills
and tail dark brown, edge of the wing and a narrow margin to the first quill pure white ; lower abdomen

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314

greyish white; proximal under tail-coverts white with a deep black tuft in the centre; flanks marked
with long white stripes ; basal portion of the bill and frontal plate bright red, the front of the bill
yellow; iris red; legs dull green with a red garter above the tibio-tarsal joint. Total length about
13 inches, culmen with frontal plate 1*34, wing 6 - 7, tail 2 - 95, tarsus T85.

Adult Male. Resembles the female ; but in a series I find that the males run smaller in size and a trifle
duller in colour.

Young. Crown, sides of the head, and hind neck olive-brown, the sides of the neck similar, but tinged with
grey ; lores whitish ; chin and throat white ; lower throat and underparts dark ash-grey, the feathers
tipped with white; lower abdomen rusty grey; the under tail-coverts washed with rusty yellowish;
upper parts dull olive-brown; quills dark brown, the inner ones margined with olivaceous brown; bill
dull yellowish green with an olivaceous tinge, the frontal plate very small ; legs very dull greenish.

Young in down (Norfolk) . Covered with hair-like blackish sooty down ; bill and the frontal bare spot red ;
the sides of the head blue, and the chin and upper throat with white points to the down ; legs dark
greyish, almost blackish grey ; iris greyish brown.

The Moorhen, or common Gallinule, is very generally distributed throughout Europe up to
about 60° N. lat., being a migrant in the upper portion of the zone it inhabits, and a resident in
some of the other portions. In Asia, Africa, and America there are very closely allied forms
which scarcely deserve specific rank, respecting which closer details are given below ; but
specimens from all parts of the Western Palsearctic Region do not differ appreciably inter se.

In Great Britain the present species is resident and very generally distributed, and breeds
in suitable localities from the extreme south up to the extreme north, the Outer Hebrides, and
Orkney.

In Ireland, as in England, the Moorhen is found throughout the country. It does not
visit Greenland or Iceland ; and Captain Feilden states that it is only an uncertain wanderer to
Feeroe, where Miiller records its occurrence in December 1845, February 1854, and in June 1860.
According to Mr. Collett it breeds here and there on the coasts of Norway, but is nowhere
numerous. Its nest has been discovered near Stavanger, at Etne in Hardanger ; and it has been
observed in the breeding-season on the Trondhjems fiord. One was shot at Bergen in 1870 ; and
individuals have been obtained at Bodo in 1828, at Christiansand, at Skien, in December 1862,
and at Christiania in November 1866. Nilsson speaks of it as being a comparatively rare bird
in Sweden, where it arrives in April, and leaves in September or October, and is found in Skane
as well as in Upper Sweden. It breeds in several parts of Skane and near Gothenburg. On one
occasion only has it been obtained in Finland, in 1842, when one was captured in Kyrkslatt
parish, Nyland, and passed into the hands of the late Magnus von Wright, who placed it in the
Finnish collection at Helsingfors. In Bussia it does not range far north. Mr. Sabanaeff informs
me that it has once occurred in the Jaroslaf Government, and it breeds in the south-eastern
portion of Vologda. It is not rare in the Moscow Government ; and Bogdanoff says that it is
found along the Volga, and in small numbers in the Kazan Government ; and Artzibascheff
records it as being common in reedy districts on the Sarpa, where it breeds. In Poland, Mr.
Taczanowski writes, it is everywhere common, arriving in March and remaining to the end of

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October. In North Germany, according to Borggreve it is less numerous in the east than in
the west, and is much rarer in the flat coast districts of Pomerania than, for instance, in
Westphalia. It arrives in Denmark late in April or early in May, and leaves again for the
south in August or September. Mr. Collin states (Skand. Fugle, p. 555) that it breeds not
uncommonly throughout the country, as for instance on Moen, at Traneskjser, at Gedsor, on
Falster, at Soro, and Ourebygaard, according to Boie in the duchies ; and Mecklenburg found
it breeding in Schleswig, and Grill at Skaarup, in the Odense districts, and at Margaard. It is
also met with occasionally on Bornholm. The Moorhen is found in Heligoland on passage
in April and May, and from the end of August to the 15th of September, but so rarely that
Mr. Gatke says one cannot count on three in each successive year. In Western Germany the
Moorhen is common in suitable localities; but Mr. Sachse informs me that near Altenkirchen
it is rather rare than otherwise, as there are so few ponds, but when it does occur it is generally
found nesting. In Holland, Belgium, and France it is very common, being, as a rule, a
migrant; but a few remain during the winter, especially in mild seasons. In Spain it is
resident; Colonel Irby says (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 144), "it is not so common in Andalucia as the
Spotted Crake (Porzana maruetta) ; but I was unable to detect any migratory habits on the
Spanish side of the Straits, where it is tolerably plentiful and generally distributed in all suitable
localities, often being seen about the gardens at the edge of the small stream at Algeciraz and
at Vejer, seeming, as in England, to be fond of living in the vicinity of houses and cultivation.
They nest about the end of April." In all parts of Southern Europe, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia,
Greece, the Ionian Islands, &c. it is resident and numerous; but in Southern Germany, in
districts where the ponds are covered with ice in the winter, it migrates southward, returning
again soon after the ice breaks up. In Malta, however, according to Mr. C. A. Wright, it
is only met with on passage in March and April, or early in May, and again in September.
Lord Lilford, writing to me respecting the Moorhen, says : — " It is abundant in almost all parts
of Europe suited to its habits that I have visited, especially in the great marshes of Epirus and
in Sicily. I have several times observed young birds of the first brood assisting their parents in
building a second nest. A pair of these birds bred and reared six young in my aviary at Lilford
in the summer of 1876. I look upon the Waterhen as an enemy to the game-preserver, not
only from the quantity of Pheasant-food which it devours, but from the fact that it will attack,
kill, and eat young birds of all sorts. The bird is a great favourite of mine, and I should be
sorry to encourage its destruction ; but I am persuaded that it is a dangerous neighbour to young
game birds."

In Asia Minor and Palestine it is also found at all seasons of the year; and in Egypt,
Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt, p. 275), it is very plentiful in some parts of Lower Egypt
and the Fayoom ; but he did not meet with it elsewhere there, though it probably ranges through
the country. In Algeria and near Tangier it is numerous and resident, though many are migra-
tory ; and, according to Mr. F. DuCane God man, it inhabits the eastern group of the Azores,
Madeira, and the Canaries. On the mainland of Africa the Moorhen is found (subject to slight
variation, as below stated) down to the Cape of Good Hope ; and it breeds also in South Africa
in February and March.

In Asia our European Moorhen abounds in the Caspian provinces, and is not uncommon

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about the rivers and marshes of Southern Persia, where Major St. John met with it. As in
Africa, specimens from Asia, and especially those from the Malay archipelago, vary from the
common European form : and it is not easy to say how far east this latter ranges ; but it
appears to occur in India. Mr. A. O. Hume writes (Stray Feathers, i. p. 250), " the Waterhen
abounds in every swamp and broad in Sindh. I shot some almost daily, expecting to get Blyth's
Gallinula burnesi, especially at the Muncher lake, whence the type specimen was sent. I have
killed and examined many examples ; but all I met with were referable to the European species.
I begin to have strong doubts as to whether Gallinula burnesi is not merely the immature
chloropus." Subject to some variation, the Moorhen is found as far east as China and Japan,
and south to the Philippines, Celebes, Java, Borneo, and Sumatra.

In America, should the form occurring there be, as I believe, not specifically distinct from
our bird, it is to be met with from British North America down to Southern Brazil.

It is by no means easy to say whether the various forms of the Moorhen found in Asia,
Africa, and America should be united with our European bird or kept specifically separate.
In plumage they do not differ, except to a very slight degree in intensity of colour ; the
only appreciable difference is in measurements, more especially in the size and extent of the
frontal plate. I have examined as many specimens as I could collect together from the British
Museum and from the cabinets of Messrs. Salvin and Godman, Tristram, C. A. Wright, Howard
Saunders, &c. ; and the result shows that they vary as follows : — European examples do not
differ greatly inter se, the measurements being — wing 6*5 to 7T inches, tarsus 1*78 to 2T ; and
the frontal plate does not extend as far as the eye, not reaching to within 0T to 022 from a line
drawn perpendicularly from the front of the eye. In Africa the European form appears to be
the one found in the extreme north ; but one from Lake Ashangi, in the British Museum,
measures — wing 6*82, tarsus T8 ; and the frontal shield is rather larger than in any European
example, reaching up to the anterior angle of the eye, and being broader and more swollen.
Examples from West and South Africa, Gallinula meridionalis (Stagnicola meridionalis, C. L.
Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 707, 1831), measure — wing 6 - 05 to to 6 - 3, tarsus 1*75 to 1*82 ; and the
frontal plate extends - 15 to - 28 beyond the anterior angle of the eye. Professor Newton has
separated the Mauritius bird under the name of Gallinula pyrrhorrhoa (P. Z. S. 1861, p. 18),
and states that it differs in having the frontal plate large, the under tail-coverts buff, and the
legs yellow ; and he further adds that its cry differs altogether from that of our bird. Besides
Mauritius, this form inhabits the Mascarene Islands, Bourbon, and Madagascar.

Judging from the series I have examined from India, examples from that country differ very
slightly from typical European birds, in having a shorter wing and a larger frontal plate. The
measurements of those I have examined are: — wing 5 - 62 to 6 - 2 inches, in one specimen from
Behar 6*6 ; tarsus 1*7 to T9 ; and the frontal plate, which in some reaches quite to the anterior
angle of the eye, in others does not reach to within 0T5 to - inch of it; thus in every case
this plate is larger than in European examples. A specimen from Yunnan which measures,
wing 6'2 inches, tarsus 1*8, has, however, the frontal plate much bigger, extending fully 0T5
beyond the anterior angle of the eye. It would seem as if the European form occurred in India,
and there met the eastern form, which has a larger frontal plate ; and it seems not improbable
that Blyth's Gallinula parvifrons (J. As. Soc. Beng. xii. p. 180, 1843) is our European Moorhen,

317

the larger-fronted Asiatic bird being Gallinula orientalis, Horsfield. Examples from the
Philippines differ appreciably from our European bird in the size of the frontal plate, and
closely resemble those from America, except that they have a shorter wing. One in the British
Museum, stated to have come from Celebes (where, as a rule, Gallinula hcematopus, Temm.,
alone occurs), measures — wing 5*75, tarsus 1*9, the frontal plate extending 0T2 beyond the
anterior angle of the eye; and a female from Amparo (Philippines), in my own collection,
measures — wing 6 - 4, tarsus 2*22, the frontal plate extending - 28 beyond the angle of the eye.

The American form, Gallinula galeata (Crex galeata, Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 80, 1823),
assimilates to the South-Asiatic form in measurements to some extent ; but, as a rule, the
wing is longer in American examples. Unfortunately, however, I have no series of Indian and
Malay-archipelago birds to compare, as there is only one in the British Museum from Celebes,
and, owing to the sudden death of my co-worker, the Marquis of Tweeddale, I cannot at present
make use of his rich collection, as I have hitherto done, and ere long shall be able to do again.

Examples from British North America are large in size ; a male in my own collection, from
Kingston, Ontario, measures — wing 7'4, tarsus 2-12, and the frontal plate extends - 22 beyond
the angle of the eye. One from Mexico measures — wing 6-8, tarsus 2T, frontal plate 0-25
beyond the angle of the eye ; and examples in the British Museum and the collection of Messrs.
Salvin and Godman, from South America, vary in size as follows — wing 6*7 to 7*75, tarsus T95
to 2'3, the frontal plate extending from 0T5 to - 3 beyond the angle of the eye; and in some
this plate is very much swollen. The largest of these birds is a female from Southern Pern. In
the British Museum are two examples from Trinidad, which have the frontal plate very large,
and measure as follows — wing 6-6 and 6 - 8 inches, tarsus 1*92 and 2"0, the frontal plate extending
- 2 and 0-28 beyond the angle of the eye.

The series I have examined is not sufficiently extensive to enable me to decide whether these
various forms should be treated as separate species or not ; but I certainly incline to the latter
view ; for although the extremes, when compared, appear to be so very distinct, it seems almost
impossible to draw a line of distinction anywhere between them.

The Moorhen (or Waterhen, as this bird is called in many localities) frequents marshes,
ponds, streams, and large ditches where there is plenty of cover in the way of reeds, flags, and
other aquatic plants, and where, when disturbed, it can find suitable shelter. When unmolested
it is by no means shy, though it is cautious and wary ; and when there is a large pond near or in
pleasure-grounds, these birds get very tame towards people whom they see every day ; but they
are well able to discriminate between friends and strangers, a strange dog being recognized
as a possible enemy at once, and most carefully avoided. I have often seen Moorhens helping
themselves to the food placed out for poultry and ducks ; and they are quite capable of taking
care of themselves in case the poultry object to their presence. Although quiet and seemingly
inoffensive in a general way, the Moorhen is by no means a peaceable bird as regards others of its
own species ; and it will, if possible, drive off any intruder who may invade its home, attacking even
wild ducks and geese. A pair usually take possession of a small pond ; or if the pond be sufficiently
large, several pairs will be found there, each keeping to its own little district ; and in the spring
of the year many combats take place when the young birds are on the look-out for a suitable
nesting-place. Usually the Moorhen is to be seen swimming about in the open places between

the aquatic vegetation, and less seldom wandering about on the dry land. It frequently dodges
about amongst the reeds, and climbs amongst the densest herbage with ease, grasping the reeds
or flags with its long toes. It frequently perches on a root-stump or trunk of a tree overhanging
the water, and may be seen standing on one foot with its head drawn close in. It walks sedately,
lifting its feet very high as it steps along ; but if disturbed it throws its body forward and runs
with great speed to the nearest shelter ; and it is an adept in the art of concealing itself. Mac-
gillivray, one of our best field-naturalists and observers, remarks : — " It is curious to observe
with what facility it makes its escape in circumstances in which one might at first suppose it
impossible for it to get off in security. Thus you may come upon one feeding in a narrow
ditch filled with water. It instantly dives or flies off a short way ; and when you run up to the
place where it has just alighted, and think you are sure of it, you find no traces of its existence.
Watch as long as you please, no bird makes its appearance ; it has sunk, and concealed itself
somewhere along the margin, and there it will remain, with nothing but its bill above the
surface, until you have departed ; for it would require an eye sharper than that of a lynx to
discover it. Although, when accustomed to the molestation of man, it is very vigilant, easily
alarmed, and always prepared for flight, it is less wary in remote and unfrequented places. In
some of the rushy lakes of the islands of Harris and North Uist, I have found it easier to get
within shooting-distance than in the mill-dams and streams of the lower districts of Scotland,
where, should it observe you, even at a great distance, it is sure to be off instantly ; and by the
time you get to the place, it has concealed itself."

The Moorhen swims with ease, and sits very lightly on the water. It dives and swims under
water, when pursued, with equal facility, propelling itself with its wings as well as with its feet.
Its flight is feeble and laboured until it attains a considerable altitude, when it flies with tolerable
speed. If it flies only a short distance, it flutters or flaps along heavily, its long legs dangling
down, nearly touching the water, and its neck stretched forward. Its voice is loud, and may be
heard at a considerable distance. Its call-note, which is often uttered in the evening when the
bird calls its mate, resembles the syllables crekrekrek ; and it utters a note also like the call of a
frog. When on passage, and when flying, especially in the evening and at night, one hears its
loud clear call kickickick, uttered now and again. The very young birds utter a rather querulous
piping note when following their parents; but at the first appearance of danger they become
as silent as possible.

The Moorhen feeds both on vegetable and animal substances. Water-insects of various
kinds, small aquatic snails, coleoptera, worms, &c. appear to form its staple food; but it eats
also the tender shoots of grasses, seeds of aquatic plants, and grain of various kinds. It seeks
its food chiefly when swimming about, and but seldom on land, except early in the morning and
late in the evening, when, after a shower of rain, it will search amongst the grass for worms,
slugs, &c.

Both male and female assist in collecting together the necessary materials for the construc-
tion of the nest, which is commenced directly the vegetation begins to make progress — the time
varying according to the mildness or severity of the season, from the middle of April to the
middle of May. The nest is placed either amongst the aquatic herbage on the bank close to
the edge of the water, amongst stumps or roots, or, though rarely, on a tree. Yarrell mentions

319

instances of its nest having been found on the branch of a fir tree, a few feet above the water, and
on a branch which rested on the surface of deep still water, and in one instance on a spruce tree
about twenty feet above the ground ; but it only selects such places in exceptional cases, probably
when there is a chance of the nest being swamped by an overflow of the water. The Moorhen is
said even to remove its eggs and raise its nest should the water rise and threaten to overwhelm
it ; and Selby gives an instance of a pair of Moorhens having done this. The nest is a bulky
structure of dried reeds and blades of grasses and aquatic plants, the inside cup being rather
more carefully made of finer materials. The eggs, from six to nine or even ten in number, are
pale rusty clay-yellow in ground-colour, marked more or less profusely with violet-grey shell-
spots and reddish-brown surface-spots and blotches, and measure from Iff by 1^% to lf^ by
1^ inch. The surface of the shell is smooth, but nearly devoid of gloss; and in shape the eggs
are oval, slightly more pointed towards one end than towards the other. Incubation lasts from
twenty to twenty-one days, both male and female birds taking their turn on the nest, though the
female is said to sit always during the night, the male taking up his quarters for the night in
close proximity. Two or even three broods are raised in the same season ; and the young birds
of the first brood will assist in bringing up those subsequently hatched.

The specimens figured, an adult female with the young birds in down dress, are in my own
collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, S, b, 2 ■ Hampstead, near London, April 28th, 1870 (Davy), c, d, e, pulli. Norfolk, f, $ ad. Albania
(Hanbury -Barclay), g. Amparo, Philippines, July 1877 (A. H. Everett), h, 6. Kingston, Ontario,
1873 (A. R. Dresser).

E Mus. Brit. Meg.

a. Avington, Hants, November 25th, 1872 (E. Shelley), b. Athens, c, <S . Lake Ashangi, May 4th, 1868
(Blanford). d. Benguela (Hartlaub). e. Natal. /. Potchefstroom, South Africa (Barratt). g,juv.
India. h, i,juv.,j, k, I, ad. Nepal [Hodgson). m. Behar (Hodgson). n. Tenasserim (Packman),
o. Thibet (Earl Gifford). p. Yunnan, June 1868 (Dr. Anderson) . g. Celebes, r, s. Trinidad. . t. Brazil.
u. South America (Turner).

E Mus. Salvin et Godman.

a. Mexico, b, c. Duefias, September 1862 (0. Salvin). d, ?. Altiloquia, Columbia (Salmon), e, <S . Costa
Rica, 1869. /. Southern Peru, November 4th, 1867 (Whitely). g, 6 . Cacara, Brazil, April 12th, 1828.

E Mus. C. A. Wright.
a. Salini, Malta, May 1874 (C. A. W).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, 2, b,pull. Malaga, Spain, July 9th, 1871. b, 6 . Tangier.

320

321

Genus FULICA.

Fulica, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 23 (1760).

Lv/pha apud Beichenbach, Natiirl. Syst. p. xxi (1851).

The Coots inhabit the Paleearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Nearctic, and Neotropical
Begions, two species being resident in the Western Palsearctic Begion. Like the birds belonging
to the preceding genera, they frequent marshy and damp localities, usually lakes and ponds
bordered with aquatic herbage. They pass most of their time swimming about on the open
portions, so close, however, to cover that they can at once take shelter in case of need. Some-
times they may be seen wading about in shallow places ; but they walk rather clumsily. They
are companionable, and are often found in large flocks. They swim and dive extremely well ; and
their flight is tolerably good, though they rise with difficulty and splash along for some distance
before they rise fairly into the air. Their call-note is clear and trumpet-like, and can be heard
at a great distance. They feed on aquatic insects, seeds, tender shoots and buds, worms, shell-
fish, &c, obtaining the last by diving. Their nests, which ax'e placed either amongst the
reeds and aquatic herbage or on the ground near the water, are bulky, constructed of dried flags,
reeds, &c, and lined with finer materials ; and their eggs, which are numerous, are yellowish
grey, tolerably closely dotted and marked with blackish brown.

Fulica atra, the type of the genus, has the bill nearly as long as the head, stout, tapering,
compressed, the ridges of the upper mandible narrow, enlarged at the base into an elliptical
tumid plate, which extends beyond the eyes ; nasal groove large ; the nostrils submedian, linear-
oblong; wings short, rounded, the first quill much shorter than the second, which is longest, the
third being about equally long; tail soft, short, rounded; feet large, tibia bare for a short
distance ; tarsus strong, compressed, scutellate ; toes long, slender, scutellate above, flat beneath,
edged with broad scalloped membranes ; claws long, slender, slightly curved, compressed, acute.

i 7 8

322

504

. •ulema.ps Htb..

I.CRESTED COOT.

FULICA CRISTATA.

2. CO MMON COOT.

FULICA ATRA.

HaaKari nax>.

32

3

FULICA CKISTATA.

(CRESTED COOT.)

La grande Foulqite a Crete, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 222 (1781).
Fulica cristata, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 704 (1788).
Fulica mitrata, Licht. Nomencl. Av. p. 97 (1854).
Lupha cristata, Reich. Natiirl. Syst. taf. 187. fig. 1090.

Figura? notabiles.
D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 797; Naumannia, 1856, pi. 2; Bree, B. of Europe, pi. to p. 83.

Ad. Fulica atrce similis sed alis haud albido terminatis, crista in elypeo supremo duplica incamato-rubra, iride
castaneo-rubra, : rostro et pedibus sicut in Fulica atrd coloratis.

Adult Female (Lake Halloula, Algeria, May 1856). Entire head and neck sooty black ; upper parts generally
slaty black ; wings and tail brownish black, without any white on them ; underparts paler than the
upper parts, being more of a dark greyish slate; beak and frontal shield white, the latter terminating
in two conspicuous red knobs ; legs ashy white ; iris reddish brown. Total length about 16 inches,
culmen 1*3, gape 1*4, wing 8'0, tail 2'6, tarsus 2"55.

Adult Male (Natal). Does not differ from the female above described, except that the frontal knobs are,
perhaps, a little smaller.

Young (Malaga) . Much paler than the adult ; the feathers on the underparts are tipped with greyish, as are
also those on the chin and neck ; the frontal shield is but little developed, the knobs are very small ;
and the bill is evidently dark in colour, and not white.

More especially an African bird, being found in suitable localities almost throughout that
continent, the Crested Coot is to be met with but rarely north of the Mediterranean. It is
recorded by Professor Barboza du Bocage as found in Portugal, where, though less abundant
than Fulica atra, it is well known ; and it occurs also in Spain. I have seen specimens obtained
at the Albufera, near Valencia; and Mr. Howard Saunders, who states (Ibis, 1871, p. 225) that
it appears there in winter, adds that it breeds in the " marisma " near Madre del Rocio, in
Andalucia, where he saw it and obtained identified eggs. According to Colonel Irby it doubt-
less occurs further east than Andalucia ; for he saw specimens at Granada marked as Spanish.
M. Degland remarks (Orn. Eur. ii. p. 283) that one was killed early in 1841 on the marsh of
Marignan, near Marseilles, and is, or was, in the collection of M. Montvalon, jun.

Mr. A. von Homeyer found it breeding in the Balearic Isles, where, he says, it is less
numerous than the Purple Gallinule. He saw several stuffed specimens, which the owners
seemed to value but little; and on the 15th of May he observed several quite young birds with
the old female, and had au opportunity of watching the former quite closely.

4r

324

Count Salvadori writes (Ucc. d'ltal. p. 237) that it occurs very rarely in Italy: one was
procured in Liguria ; and another, now in the University Museum at Pisa, was purchased in the
market of that town. In Sardinia it is said to be tolerably common, but appears, Mr. A. B.
Brooke says, more abundantly some winters than in others ; and in Sicily, according to Malherbe,
it has been obtained on the Anapus ; but Salvadori says that it is stated to have been met with
on the lakes in the southern portions of that island. I have examined a fine specimen shot in
Malta by Mr. C. A. Wright in May 1859; and he says that he was informed by Dr. Gulia that
three were shot at Marsa Scala in February 1860. It does not appear to have been observed in
Greece, Turkey, or Asia Minor; but Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt, p. 278): — This Coot
" appears to be plentiful at times in Egypt, and extends, I believe, throughout Nubia. I never
met with a specimen while in the country ; but a resident informed me that they are abundant
during the inundations." Von Heuglin says that he found the Crested Coot in considerable
numbers late in April and early in May on Lake Tana, in Abyssinia ; Lefebvre obtained one in
May in Enderta; and Blanford writes that he met with it in tolerable abundance on Lake
Ashangi.

In North-western Africa this Coot appears to be even more abundant than on the eastern
side. Canon Tristram found it breeding numerously on Lake Halloula, in Algeria, where he
never met with the common Coot (though it certainly occurs there in the winter with its
congener) ; and he believes that each species confines itself to its own nesting-places. Thus, in
the lakes he visited in Eastern Algeria the following summer, while Fulica atra abounded,
Fulica cristata never once came under his observation. Near Tangier, F.ivier says (fide Colonel
Irby), it is both resident and migratory. Those which migrate return from the north in
September. It associates with Fulica atra, but is much more numerous than that species.
Lord Lilford informs me that he " met with it in the Regency of Tunis, where it was pretty
common on the lakes and lagoons in the early winter of 1856."

It probably ranges right down the west coast of Africa, though there are many intermediate
localities, which have been well worked by collectors, whence it has not been recorded. Pro-
fessor Barboza du Bocage states that it occurs on the Bio Coroca. Mr. Andersson says that it is
common, in suitable localities, in Damara and Great Namaqua Land, and more abundant in
the lake regions ; and Mr. E. L. Layard writes (B. of S. Afr. p. 343), in the Cape colony it " is
abundant on all ponds and sheets of water. It also frequents deep holes and still reaches in
rivers, concealing itself amid the herbage during the day, and feeding morning and evening about
the banks. It wanders at these times several hundred yards from its lair, and on being alarmed
scuttles away on its feet, aided by its wings, until, a sufficient impetus being attained, it rises in
the air, and will not unfrequently fly a very long distance. It swims well and boldly ; and I
have seen it alight on the waters of Table Bay and breast a considerable sea. It constructs a
nest of sedge, usually floating among the rushes, and lays seven eggs." Mr. F. A. Barratt states
(Ibis, 1876, p. 213) that this Coot is by no means rare in the Lydenburg district. Towards the
mouth of the Mooi river, near the Vaal, he found them in great abundance, and shot specimens
a few hours' north of Pretoria. Mr. Ayres and Mr. T. E. Buckley obtained it in the Transvaal,
and the former in Natal, where, however, it is less numerous than in the Transvaal ; and both

325

Dr. Hartlaub and Mr. E. Newton state that it is found in Madagascar, being, according to
Mr. Caldwell, Mr. Newton adds, common near the capital.

I have not had the good fortune to see this Coot in a wild state, and am therefore obliged
to collect information respecting its habits from the writings of those naturalists who have visited
its haunts in Africa. Almost all who have seen it wild agree in saying that it does not differ in
habits from Fulica atra ; but Mr. A. von Homeyer, who met with it in the Balearic Isles, says
(J. f. O. 1862, p. 430) that, when on the water, it bears more resemblance to Gallinula chloropus
than to Fulica atra, as also in the localities it selects for its habitat.; for it does not evince so
great a preference for large sheets of water, but is seen chiefly in swamps and ponds. Referring
to its habits as observed by him in North Africa, Von Heuglin says that it is usually found in
colonies in the shallow, reedy, and flag-covered portions of the larger lakes in the Abyssinian
highlands, at an altitude of from 6000 to 9000 feet. In still weather these Coots are to be seen
on open places in the lakes tolerably far from the shore ; but wind or waves drive them directly
into the shelter of the reeds. They feed on insects and their larvae, spawn, shells, small fish, and
aquatic plants. They appear to be migratory ; for he never saw any on Lake Tana in February
or March ; but it is possible that they had withdrawn to more inaccessible localities than those
they at other times inhabited. They always avoid running water. When wounded they take to
the land and hide amongst the roots and tangled brushwood on the shores. Mr. Andersson says
(B. of Damara Land, p. 327) that " these Coots may often be observed congregated in large numbers
on open sheets of water, where they might easily be mistaken for a flock of Ducks, except that
they do not 'pack' like wildfowl. If disturbed, they will sometimes, if near a reedy brake, seek
safety by hiding there ; but more frequently they have recourse to their wings, when they exhibit
great powers of flight." In Natal, according to Mr. Ayres (Ibis, 1868, p. 470) the Crested Coots
are " very shy, and maintain a flight for a length of time, examining their ground well before
realighting ; but in the Transvaal they seem to trust more to hiding and diving for their safety,
and, when flushed, fly but a short distance. Frequently have I stood up to my middle in water
listening to some cunning old bird within a few yards of me, and vainly trying to catch a glimpse
of him, where there was not enough cover, apparently, to hide a rat. Either these birds must
possess the power of ventriloquism, or they must remain under water with perhaps just their
bills out ; one thing is certain, that they are expert divers."

The nest and eggs of this Coot closely resemble those of Fulica aim. Canon Tristram says
that the eggs run rather larger than those of the common Coot ; but this is scarcely the case as
regards South-African examples. The nest is placed on little openings in artificial mounds, or
among the stumps of old reed-clumps, and is tolerably well constructed of reeds and grasses. In
Damara Land, Mr. Andersson says, these Coots " build their nests of and amongst reeds, rushes,
and grasses, usually selecting the most retired spots, though I have also found their nests in
most exposed situations. A few old reed-stalks serve as a footing for the nest, which is roughly
but firmly constructed, and is raised, though sometimes only a few inches, above the surface of
the water." It breeds very numerously in some parts of South Africa; for Mr. Gurney remarks
(Ibis, 1868, p. 261) that " Mr. Ayres, in travelling from Natal to Potchefstroom in the month of
December, found this Coot breeding so abundantly on the larger lagoons that he and his com-

4k2

326

4

panion collected six hundred of its eggs in a single day. Most of the nests contained from three
to five eggs each."

The specimen figured, on the same Plate with Fulica atra, is a very fine male lent to me by
Canon Tristram.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. II. E. Dresser.

a, ad. N. Africa. b,juv. Malaga, Spain, July 30th, 1876 (Schliiter),

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.

a, 2. Lake Halloula, Algeria, May 7th, 1856 (H. B. T.). b. Cape of Good Hope (E. L. Layard). c, d.
Natal (T. Ay res) .

E Mus. C. A. Wright.
a, ad. Quarantine Harbour, Malta, May 1859 (C. A. TV.).

327

FULICA ATEA.

(COMMON COOT.)

Fulica, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 23, pi. ii. fig. 1 (1760).

Fulica major, Briss. torn. cit. p. 28, pi. ii. fig. 2 (1760).

Fulica atra, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 257 (1766).

Fulica aterrima, Linn. torn. cit. p. 258 (1766).

Fulica fuliginosa, Scop. Ann. i. Hist. Nat. p. 104. no. 150 (1769).

IFulica albiventris, Scop. torn. cit. p. 105. no. 151 (1769).

La Foulque, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 211, pi. xviii. (1781).

La Macroule, Buff. torn. cit. p. 220 (1781).

Fulica leucoryx, Sparrm. Mus. Carls, pi. 12 (1786).

Fulica wthiops, Sparrm. op. cit. pi. 13 (1786).

Fulica atrata, Pall. Zoogr. Bosso-As. ii. p 158 (1811).

Fulica pullat a, Pall. torn. cit. p. 159 (1811).

Fulica platyuros, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutsch. p. 711 (1831).

Fulica lugubris, Sal. Mull. Verh. Natuurl. Gesch. Nederl. Bezitt. iii. p. 454 (1839-44).

Fulica australis, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1845, p. 2.

Fulica atra japonica, Temm. & Schl. Fauna Japonica, Aves, p. 120, pi. 77 (1850).

Fulica cinereicollis, MacClelland, fide Gieb. Thes. Orn. ii. p. 211 (1875).

Foulque noire, Macroule, French ; Galeirdo, Portuguese ; Mancon, Focha, Spanish ; Folaga,
Italian ; Figiega-tal-Bahar, Maltese ; Ghorra, Arabic ; el Ghor, Moorish ; Wasserhuhn,
Bldsshuhn, German ; MeerJcoet, Dutch ; Blishone, Blisand, Bliskaw, Danish ; Sjouhona,
Fseroese ; Blisshone, Norwegian ; Sothona, Vattenhona, Swedish ; NoMJcana, Finnish ;
LissJca, Lissiona, Lisu/pa-chernaya, Eussian.

Figura? notabiles.

DAubenton, PL Enl. 197; Werner, Atlas, Pinnatipedes, pi. 1; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 38,
Suppl. taf. 18; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 208; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 35. fig. 6;
Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 241 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 45. fig. 5 ; Gould, B. of
Eur. pi. 338; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 84; id. B. of Austr. vi. pi. 74; Schlegel, Vog.
Nederl. pi. 251 ; Temm. & Schl. Fauna Japon. pi. 77; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. pi. 74.

Ad. capite et collo nigris vix schistaceo tinctis : dorso, scapularibus et alis supra nigricanti-schistaceis :
remigibus secundariis albo terminatis., alis extiis albo marginatis : corpore subtus griseo-schistaceo,
crissa et subcaudalibus nigris : rostro et fronte calva cseruleo-albis : iride rubra, : pedibus cseruleo-
albis : tibiis aurantiaeis.

Juv. sordidior : capite et collo albido striatisj mento fere albo : corpore subtus sordide griseo-schistaceo, plumis
griseo-albo terminatis.

328

Adult Male (Leadenhall Market, May) . Head and neck slaty black ; back slaty black, but rather paler
than the head ; wings and tail coloured like the back ; but the short secondaries are tipped with white,
and the edge of the wing is white; underparts generally dark slaty blue-grey; under tail-coverts
blackish slate ; bill and frontal plate bluish white ; legs bluish grey, the bare part of the tibia orange ;
iris deep red. Total length about 16 inches, culmen including the frontal plate 2*05, gape l - 45, wing
8*2, tail 2*2, tarsus 2*25, middle toe with claw 355.

Adult Female. Resembles the male, but is smaller, and the colours of the plumage are less pure in tint.

Young (Ural, 1868) . Upper parts duller and paler than in the adult, the head and neck marked with small
white dashes ; chin nearly white ; underparts dull light slate, most of the feathers with greyish white
tips ; crissum and under tail-coverts black.

Young in down. Covered with close hair-like slaty-black down tipped with white ; frontal membrane red ;
bill red at the base, and white towards the tip ; legs dull lead-grey ; iris brownish yellow.

Obs. According to Mr. J. H. G-urney, jun., when the bird begins to emerge from the down into the first
feather-plumage, the breast, fore part of the neck, and the chin are pure white ; but I have not had an
opportunity of examining a specimen in this stage of plumage.

The common Coot is very generally distributed throughout Europe, and ranges southward into
Central Africa, being, however, replaced in the Cape colony by Fulica cristata. In Asia it is
found as far east as Japan, and south to Australia.

With us in Great Britain it is a common and resident species, being generally distributed
throughout the whole of the United Kingdom, though less numerous in some than in other
localities. In England it is to be met with in almost every county in suitable localities.
Mr. Stevenson writes (B. of Norf. p. 425) that, "though an abundant species in Norfolk, it
is not so generally distributed as Gallinula chloropus, preferring the open waters of the broads
and meres, extensive lakes, and large reedy ponds to the smaller coverts that content the more
familiar Water-Hen. Except in close vicinity to the broads themselves, it is seldom seen on
our rivers ; but in the neighbourhood of Surlingham and Rockland, on the Yare, its peculiar
cry may be heard from the deep sedgy ponds ; and in the wilder portions of the Bure and the
Ant, winding their sluggish course through the very heart of the ' broad ' district, this bird
abounds in the reedy borders, and is heard and seen at every bend of the stream. It is
plentiful, also, in the fen districts, both to the south and south-west of the county ; and a few
breed annually in more central localities, such as Scoulton Mere, the haunt of the Black-headed
Gulls, and on such of the meres about Wretham as afford sufficient harbour. Even Foulmere,
though but a short distance from a farm-house, with all the busy sounds of human habitation,
has attractions for this species, in a belt of rushes at one end of the water — but not so Bingmere
or Longmere, though situated on a still wilder portion of Wretham heath. A few, 1 believe,
are also to be met with in summer amongst the reeds on the salt marshes about Salthouse and
Cley ; but freshwater localities are almost invariably preferred in the nesting-season, when, in
the same neighbourhood, they regularly frequent the ponds at Hempstead, near Holt, and in
one part, in close vicinity to a water-mill, in spite of the constant noise of the flushes." In the
Humber district, according to Mr. Cordeaux, it is less numerous than it used formerly to be, and

329

is now confined to only a few favourite localities ; but in Northumberland and Durham it breeds,
Mr. Hancock says, in most large pools and loughs, as at Wallington and Gosforth, and it nested
quite commonly at Prestwick Car before that district was drained.

In Scotland, Mr. Eobert Gray writes (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 338), " though less numerous
than the Moor-Hen, it appears to have an equally wide distribution, being found from north to
south over the whole of Scotland, and from east to west to the Long Island or Outer Hebrides.
It is common throughout the inner islands, breeding in suitable places, where the two species
are found in company. Islay, Skye, and Mull are frequented by considerable numbers. In a
few of these localities it is migratory, leaving its breeding-haunts about the commencement of
winter; numbers, however, remain all the year. A single pair only has been observed in
Benbecula, but it is more common in North and South Uist, as well as Harris and Lewis. One
of the Benbecula birds was killed some years ago ; but the survivor, after a short absence,
returned with another mate, probably from one of the neighbouring islands." It breeds in
Orkney, but seldom visits Shetland, and then only in winter.

In Ireland, Thompson writes (B. of Irel. ii. p. 332), the Coot " is permanently resident, and
breeds in suitable localities throughout the island, which are chiefly lakes, either in wild and
sequestered places or in game-preserved demesnes, having abundance of herbage about then-
borders. Lough Beg, near Toome (Antrim), Lough Achery, and the lakes in Hillsborough
Park (Down), the lake in Lord Lurgan's demesne (Armagh) may be named as a few of the
breeding-haunts in the north-east of the island, in all quarters of which the bird has come
under my notice, and nowhere so abundantly in summer as on the river Shannon, northward of
Lough Derg."

Though it has not been observed in Greenland (where, it is worthy of notice, the American
Coot has occurred), it has been recorded from Iceland. Faber states that a pair were killed at
Reykjavik late in 1819, and one was caught at sea off Gundavik in April 1821. Professor
Newton, who possesses one which was killed near Utskala, mentions that he is not aware that it
has been seen anywhere in Iceland, except in the south-west. In the Faeroes the Coot is tolerably
well known as a spring and autumn visitant ; and in Norway, Mr. Collett informs me, it is found
singly in almost all parts of the country, and breeds in certain localities, in the lower tracts
bordering on the Christiania fjord, for instance, where it is observed every year. On several
occasions individuals have been noticed in the middle of the winter ; an example (swimming in
the Trondhjems fjord) was killed early in January 1871. One or two individuals were observed
in Finmark, near Vardo (70° 20'), in the autumn of 1857. According to Professor Nilsson it
arrives in Sweden in April or late in March, and breeds commonly in Southern and Central
Sweden. It is very numerous near Gothenburg and Carlstad, and is found here and there near
Upsala. It breeds on the Glan lake, in Ostergothland, but becomes much rarer further north.
In Finland, according to Dr. Palmen, it is only of somewhat rare occurrence, but it breeds in the
south-western districts. It seldom ranges above 61 N. lat.; but Sadelin states that it has been
obtained near Wasa.

In Central Russia it is generally distributed, and is common in the Tver Government.
Bogdanoff remarks that it is abundant along the Volga ; and Kessler says the same respecting
its presence in the Kieff Government. As a rule, it is most numerous in the south and south-

4x

330

4

eastern Governments ; and ArtzibaschefT says that it is very abundant on some of the lakes of
the Sarpa. In the Ural it is said to be rare. In Poland, according to Mr. Taczanowski, it is
common, and generally distributed, arriving in March and leaving late in October; and throughout
North Germany it is also common.

In Denmark, Mr. Benzon informs me, the Coot is extremely numerous, and breeds in all
suitable localities throughout the country. Although it is much persecuted on account of the
injury it is said to do to the Wild-Duck shooting, it does not seem to decrease in numbers.

It is a summer visitant to Belgium, and breeds numerously in Polders and the marshes of
Flanders and the Campine, as also in many parts of Holland. According to MM. Degland and
Gerbe it is common in some parts of France, and only met with on passage in others. It breeds
in many of the departments in Central, Southern, Eastern, and Northern France. In Portugal
it is numerous, as also in Spain, especially in the winter, when it is seen in large flocks. It
breeds, Colonel Irby says, at the Laguna de la Janda in April. Lord Lilford writes to me : —
"The common Coot abounds in Andalucia, and breeds in the marisma of the Guadalquivir; it
is also very common on the Albufera of Valencia. I found it in thousands upon the great
lagoons of Sardinia and Corsica, in which localities some remain to breed also ; but the great
masses of these birds arrive there at the beginning of winter. I may here mention that the
great chasse aux macreuses described by Yarrell as taking place in the etangs of Provence
and Corsica refers to this bird, and not, as he supposes, to the Scoter, which is a comparatively
rare bird in the Mediterranean ; the mistake is a natural one, as the name macreuse, though
properly belonging, and applied in Northern France, to the Scoter, is the only name for the
Coot in the south of that country, where this species is not recognized by its proper designation
of foulque."

In Italy, according to Salvadori, it is not very common, and is more numerous in the winter
than in the summer. Malherbe writes that it is only tolerably abundant and resident in Sicily,
in the Lake of Lentini, the marshes of Catania, the Anapus, the Cyane, near Syracuse, and,
indeed, on all the rivers and marshes of that island, where they collect in large flocks in the
winter. In Sardinia, Mr. A. B. Brooke writes (Ibis, 1873, p. 336), the Coot is " extremely
abundant during winter, going in large flocks of several hundreds on the different lagoons round
Cagliari and Oristano. By far the greater number migrate ; but a few remain and breed." In
Malta, Mr. Wright says, it is " common in spring and autumn, more particular in the latter
season, when it begins to appear about the middle of August, and is seen till November."
Lord Lilford writes to me, " it is very common in winter on the lakes of Epirus, in which
country I have several times observed the singular manner in which a flock of these birds defend
themselves against the White-tailed Eagle. On the appearance over them of one of these birds,
they collect in a dense body, and when the Eagle stoops at them they throw up a sheet of water
with their feet and completely baffle their enemy ; in one instance, on a small lake near Butrinto,
they so drenched the Eagle that it was with difficulty that he reached a tree on the shore, not
more than a hundred yards from the spot where he attacked them. They seemed to take very
little notice of the Spotted Eagles, Harriers, Buzzards, &c, but on the appearance of Bonelli's
Eagle would scatter off to the covert of the reeds with which most of the lakes are thickly
fringed. I never, however, observed any bird of prey attack them except the White-tailed

331

Eagle and Peregrine Falcon, which latter would occasionally cut one down as they flew over the
land. The Coot has of late years become very common upon the Nene, in Northamptonshire,
where it was formerly rare." In Greece it winters in vast numbers, and is said to be especially
numerous in the Bay of Missolonghi and on the lakes of Vrachori. Probably a few remain to
breed there ; but Dr. Kriiper did not succeed in finding its nest.

In Southern Germany it is very generally distributed, and common in most localities.
Dr. Fritsch says that in 1857 as many as 5162 Coots were shot in Bohemia. It is a migrant in
most parts, passing south to winter. I find but few details respecting its presence in the Black
Sea and Turkey, where it is said to be by no means uncommon ; it is also pretty generally
distributed in Asia Minor, where it breeds ; for Von Gonzenbach obtained its eggs near Smyrna.
In Palestine, Canon Tristram says, it is common and resident, and it is generally distributed
throughout North Africa. Captain Shelley says that it is met with in all suitable localities in
Egypt and Nubia; and Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., remarks that at Lake Menzaleh he saw such
multitudes as he could not have believed possible. Vierthaler states that he noticed it on the
Blue Nile ; and Dr. A. E. Brehm shot one there on the 30th November. It is found in wet
localities throughout North-west Africa. Mr. Salvin writes that it is common at Zana, Djendeli,
and Bizerta, in none of which places did he observe the Crested Coot ; and, according to Canon
Tristram, it frequents the vicinity of Tuggurt. Near Tangier, Favier says {fide Colonel Irby), it
is resident, but not very numerous, often consorting with Fulica cristata. Some are migratory,
passing northwards in January and February, and returning in August and September ; and
Colonel Irby himself found it abundant near Tetuan in March.

It inhabits the Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries. Mr. Godman states that it is to be
met with in St. Michael's, on the Lagoa do Fogo, and adds that he believes they were originally
introduced into the islands. In the Canaries, according to Dr. C. Bolle, it appears every winter,
and is by no means uncommon at Teneriffe, Canaria, and Fuerteventura ; and when touching at
Madeira, in October, he saw one offered for sale by a lad who had caught it with the hand.
On the mainland of Africa the Coot ranges, according to Lichtenstein, down to Senegambia and
the Cape of Good Hope ; but though it may possibly straggle as far south as the former locality,
I scarcely think that it can ever have been obtained in the Cape colony, where it appears to be
entirely replaced by Fulica cristata. '

In Asia the Coot is found right across the continent. It inhabits suitable localities near
the Caspian, in Persia, and throughout India. In Sindh it is very numerous; for Mr. A. O.
Hume writes (Stray Feathers, i. p. 249) : — " On the Muncher lake I believe they would have to
be counted not by thousands but by hundreds of thousands ; a square mile of water may be seen
perfectly black with waterfowl ; and although ducks of various descriptions do seem innumerable,
they form scarcely one tenth of the floating herd, the great bulk of which consists of Coots.
When a shot is fired near to them and they rise, the noise of their wings, and of their feet
striking the water, is like the roar of the sea upon a shingly beach. You can shoot nothing
without knocking over some of these wretched Coots. During the day I was at the Muncher
lake, I never once fired at one, and yet I daily killed between twenty and thirty accidentally in
shooting at ducks. In no part of the world have I ever seen such incredible multitudes of
Coots as are met with in Sindh ; in the Muncher lake far excellence, but also in many others of

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the larger inland pieces of water." According to Dr. Jerdon (B. of India, ii. p. 716), it is
common in most parts of India, but rare, or wanting, in some localities which seem perfectly
adapted for it. Dr. Henderson found it breeding in the lakes of Cashmere in May and June ;
but it was not numerous ; after the Zoji-la Pass was crossed, it was only again seen in the Indus,
near Le. In Eastern Turkestan, Mr. Scully writes (Stray Feathers, iv. p. 191), it is " exceedingly
common in the plains of Kashgharia from March to October ; very few of the birds are to be
seen during the winter. It is found on all lakes and jheels, often near springs and small
streams. When alarmed it scuds across the water, seldom flying up, but flapping the surface of
the water until it can hide among the rushes ; it is also a wonderfully good diver. This species
breeds, in Turkestan, in May, June, and July. On the 10th June, the nest of a Coot, containing
seven eggs, was found at Sughuchak."

In Siberia the Coot does not reach very far north. Dr. Radde found it breeding at Kulus-
sutajeffsk. On the 25th May he obtained it at Ust-Schilka ; and it was not rare at an altitude of
2500 to 3000 feet in the Eastern Sajan range. It first appeared at Tarei-nor on the 3rd April,
and on the 3rd May it became more numerous. In the central Irkut valley he first observed it
in 1859 on the 5th May. Von Schrenck says that it occurs throughout the Amoor, as he
procured it both from the mouth and the head-waters of that river; but Von Middendorff did
not meet with it. In Mongolia, Colonel Przevalsky met with it at Dalai-nor, on passage, in
April, and found it breeding on the marshy lakes in the Hoang-ho valley. It arrived at Lake
Hanka in April, and breeds there numerously ; but he says that it does not inhabit Kan-su,
Koko-nor, and Halha. Pere David states that it is common during the summer throughout the
centre and north of China to Mantchuria, and it is also found in Japan.

Southward the Coot ranges as far as Australia. Mr. Wardlaw Ramsay obtained it (I may
here state) in Burmah ; there are specimens in the Leiden Museum from Java ; and in Australia,
Mr. Gould says, it frequents the inland waters and saltwater lagoons near the coast.

The Coot has been by many authors separated into several subspecies ; but I cannot deem
it advisable to recognize these, and therefore treat all the Old- World forms as belonging to the
same species.

Temminck and Schlegel (Fauna Japonica, p. 121) state that there are four races of the Coot,
differing only in size, viz. : — the European Coot, which measures — wing 7 inches 8 lines, tail 2"4,
tarsus 2-3, middle toe without claw 3-0, beak in length T5^, in height O'GJ; the Japanese Coot,
measuring — wing 7 inches 4 lines, tail 23, tarsus 2 - 0, middle toe 2 - 9, length of beak l - 2, height
of beak - 6 ; the Indian Coot, measuring — wing 7"0, tail 2'0, tarsus Til, middle toe 2 - 8, length
of beak 1*2, height of beak 0-5f ; and the Javan Coot, measuring — wing 6 - 5, tail Til, tarsus
1-10, middle toe 2-3, length of beak 1-2, height of beak 0"5f.

In the British Museum are specimens from Europe, North Africa, India, and Australia, which
I have examined and measured, but do not find Temminck and Schlegel's statement confirmed.
European examples measure — wing 7"65 to 8'2 inches, gape 1*4 to 1-5, tarsus 2T5 to 2-25; one
from Tunis measures — wing 7 - 7, gape T4, tarsus 2T ; specimens from India, Thibet, and Yarkand
measure — wing 7 - 65 to 7-95, gape T2 to 1-5, tarsus 1*95 to 2 # 33; and those from Australia
vary as follows — wing 7*3 to 7-5, gape 1*25 to T35, tarsus T9 to 2*25. The Australian Coot
has the bill rather more slender than the others ; but I find the variation in the frontal shield so

333

irregular that it cannot fairly be taken into consideration. In plumage there does not appear to
be any difference in the specimens from the various localities.

In North America the present species is replaced by Fulica americana, which may at once
be distinguished by having the lateral under tail-coverts white.

In the northern portions of its range the Coot is a migrant, leaving for the south at the
approach of winter ; but in the south it is a resident, or merely changes its habitat according as
it finds it necessary to obtain a good supply of suitable food. It frequents marshes, pools, and
lakes which are overgrown with or skirted by reeds, sedge, water-lilies, or other aquatic plants,
amongst which it can find secure hiding-places should danger threaten. It is generally to be
seen swimming, if it feels itself quite safe, out in the open water, or otherwise close to or
amongst the reeds, and but seldom coming on shore to open places, though it often wades about
in wet marshy places which are well covered with aquatic herbage. On land it is but an
awkward-looking bird ; for its legs being placed far aft it is compelled to walk very erect, and its
feet, though excellently adapted for swimming, render its progress on land rather clumsy ; but
it runs almost as well as the Moorhen, and with tolerable ease when disturbed and forced to run
to shelter. On the water it floats very buoyantly, and swims with ease, though not very swiftly,
jerking its tail and moving its neck to and fro. It dives extremely well, and when closely
pursued will pass along some distance under the water, and then, catching hold of the stem of a
stout plant, will keep its body immersed, the bill and fore part of the head to the eyes only
being left above the surface. Exceedingly shy and wary, it is by no means an easy bird to get
near ; and it is well able to distinguish between any one who is likely to injure it and any harm-
less individual ; for it appears to disregard fishermen or children, even when in tolerably close
proximity, whereas any suspicious-looking person, especially any one carrying a gun, is most
scrupulously and carefully avoided. Being extremely companionable, and usually found in
smaller or larger parties, or during the winter in vast swarms, it is the more difficult to
approach, as some of the party are sure to be on the alert, and not only alarm their comrades,
but any other waterfowl that may be in the vicinity. When it takes wing it does not at
once swing itself into the air, but rises at a very low angle, splashing the water for some
distance with its wings and feet. Its call-note is a clear, loud, almost trumpet-like cry, uttered
abruptly ; but heard at night, when several are calling, it is not unlike the shrill barking of a
small dog.

The food of the Coot consists of aquatic insects of various kinds, seeds, buds, and tender
shoots of aquatic plants, small shell-fish, &c. &c. Mr. Noll states (J. f. O. 1864, p. 394) that he
has seen the Coot dive and pick shells from the bottom of a pond, place them on the bank, or
on a patch of water-plants, open them at the hinder end and extract the contents, leaving the
empty shells behind. He surprised one in the act of doing this, and found a quantity of empty
broken shells, mostly of Anodonta ponderosa, and one of Unio tumidus, which had evidently been
quite recently fished up from the bottom, as the outside of the shell was moist and the animal
still alive. In this shell the larger end had already been pecked and broken into.

The Coot often feeds at night as well as by day ; and in Egypt, where it is often found in
vast swarms, the fishermen net many by night. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., who gives a good
account of this mode of catching Coot (Eambl. Nat. pp. 94, 95), says that a party of four or five

334

8

Coot-catchers will sometimes take as many as 150 in a night, and that in Damietta a fat Coot
sells for a shilling and a thin one for a franc.

The nest of the Coot is a large heavy structure, composed of decayed reeds, flags, and other
aquatic herbage, and is placed amongst reeds or willows, or else in shallow water, when it is
built up to a considerable height ; sometimes, but not often, it is placed on the land, generally
amongst grass or herbage ; and it is, as a rule, well concealed, though occasionally tolerably easy
to find. Referring to the nidification of this bird, Mr. Stevenson writes (I. c.) as follows : — " The
nests, which vary somewhat according to their situation, are all more or less compactly made,
large in size, and composed of coarse materials so firmly interwoven that Mr. Hewitson states
he has found them capable of supporting his weight. The outside of this ingeniously formed
basket usually consists of dried flags, reeds, and other withered plants ; but I have occasionally
known young reeds and rushes used in part, when the contrast of the fresh green has had a
very pretty effect. The interior is lined with rather finer substances, chiefly with portions of the
dead leaves of the reed. Though not unfrequently placed in dry situations, on the sedgy bank
of an island, or the rushy margin of a pond or lake, I have more commonly found them, on the
broads, built over the water amongst the reed-stems, in shallow spots resting on the weeds at
the bottom, in others well raised over the surface, but so fastened to the reeds themselves as to
rise with the tide, though with but little danger of their getting adrift. When thus placed
amongst the outlying reeds or rushes growing half out of the water, the nest is rather con-
spicuous ; and I have never found the eggs in any way covered ; indeed, under these circum-
stances there would not be sufficient materials at hand to do so effectively."

The eggs, usually seven or eight, and sometimes as many as twelve in number, are deposited
about the middle of May, or sometimes not until the end of that month, are yellowish grey or
stone-ochreous in colour, and are dotted and marked all over with brownish black, those in my
collection averaging about 2^j by l^-§ inch in size.

The specimen figured, on the same Plate with Fulica cristata, is an adult bird in the early
spring.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a, b, ad., c, pull, Leadenhall Market (H. E. D.). d,juv. Ural, 1868 (Sabanaeff) .

E Mus. Brit. Reg.

a, J. Avington, Hants, November 25th, 1872 (E. Shelley). b,juv. Holland, c, d. Tunis. e,f. Yarkand.
g. Behar, India, h. Nepal, i. Thibet [Lord Gifford) . k, I, m. Australia.

1 e J e J

Family GRTJIDJE.

Genus GRUS.,

Ciconia apud Brisson, Orn. v. p. 388 (1760).
Ardea apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 234 (1766).

Grus, Bechstein, Vog. Deutschl. iii. p. 60 (1793).
Anthropoides apud Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. ii. p. 163 (1816).
Scops apud G. R. Gray, List of Gen. of B. p. 86 (1841).
Antigone apud Reichenbach, Syst. Av. p. xxii (1851).
Leucogeranus apud Bonaparte, Cat. Parzud. p. 9 (1856).

By many authors the Cranes have been associated with the Herons ; but they differ very widely
in structure as well as in habits ; and, besides, the young when first hatched are able to run
about, whereas the young of the Herons are helpless when they emerge from the egg. The
Cranes are very widely distributed over the surface of the globe, being found in the Palsearctic,
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, and Nearctic Regions, three species being found in the
Western Palsearctic Region, two of which are resident, the third (Grus leucogeranus) being
a straggler from the Eastern Paleearctic Region. Grus antigone is said by Von Nordmann to
have occurred on the Don ; but I cannot find any proof that a specimen has ever really been
obtained in Europe.

The Cranes frequent open flat localities, either large marshes or open steppes, where they
can have an uninterrupted view over the surrounding country. They are wary and watchful to
a degree ; and it is most difficult to approach within gunshot range of them. They walk with
ease, and are as a rule remarkably swift-footed ; and when on the wing they fly well and swiftly,
though steadily and sedately ; but they rise into the air with some difficulty, and when they
settle they run for a short distance with outstretched wings before they can bring themselves to
a standstill. Their note is loud and trumpet-like, and may be heard at a considerable distance.
- They feed on vegetable substances of various kinds, and are said to be partial to acorns. They
breed in marshes, constructing a nest of twigs and grass, which is placed on the ground, and
depositing two eggs, which are olive-grey or olive-brown in colour, streaked and blotched with
reddish brown and pale brown.

Grus communis, the type of the genus, has the bill much longer than the head, straight,
tapering to the point, which is rather obtuse and notchless ; nasal groove extending to the centre
of the bill, the nostrils, which are linear and direct, placed in the fore part of this groove ; the
greater part of the head is bare and sparsely covered with hair-like feathers ; wings long and
full, the third quill longest, the primaries attenuated on the inner web ; the inner secondaries
longer than the closed wing, curved outwards, the filaments loose towards the end ; tail short,
rounded ; the legs long, the tibia bare for about a fourth of its length, and covered with
hexagonal scales ; tarsus anteriorly scutellate, having hexagonal scales on the sides and larger
scales behind ; hind toe small, anterior toes short and stout, the third and fourth connected at
the base ; claws short, decurved, rather obtuse, the third having an inner, thin, entire edge.

179

336

505

/

•

" 1 sass***?***^''

■'■■■■ J «0g8&5?

COMMON CRANE

GRUS COMMUNIS.

337

GEUS COMMUNIS.

(COMMON CRANE.)

Ardea grus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 234 (1766).

Common Crane, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 674 (1790).

Grus communis, Bechst. Vog. Deutsch. iii. p. 60 (1793).

Grus cinerea, Bechst. Nat. Deutschl. neue Ausg. B. iv. Abth.'l, p. 103 (fide Meyer, 1801-9).

Grus cinerea (Bechst.), Meyer, Tasch. deutsch. Vogelk. ii. p. 350 (1810).

Grus vulgaris, Pall. Zoogr. Bosso-As. ii. p. 106 (1811-31).

Grus cinerea longirostris, Temm. & Schl. Faun. Jap. p. 117 (1850).

Grus cineracea, Brehm, Naumannia, p. 289 (1855).

Chorra-mJwnaidh, Gaelic ( Gray) ; La Grue, French ; Grou, Portuguese ; Grulla, Spanish ;
Grua, Maltese ; Bhernong, Arab ; der Kranicli, German ; Kraan, Dutch ; Almindelig Trane,
Danish ; Trane, Norwegian ; Trana, Swedish ; Jouravl sieryi, Bussian ; Loraw, Polish.

Figures notabiles.

. Werner, Atlas, Cursores, pi. 17; Buff. PI. Enl. pi. 769; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 270;
Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. pi. 231 ; Temm. & Schl. Faun. Jap. pi. lxii. ; Polydore Eoux,
Orn. Prov. pi. 326 ; Sundevall, Sv. Fogl. pi. 47. fig. 3.

Ad. pallide cinereus : fronte et loris pilis nigris vestitis : vertice rubro, papilloso, pilis nigris vix vestito :
nucha, genis, gula et collo antico infra medium nigricantibus vix schistaceo lavatis : lined lata
utrinque ab oculo per collum laterale producta, cinereo-alba : remigibus nigris, secundariis intimis
elongatis, laxis, filamentosis, nigricantibus, extimis extime cinereis : rectricibus cinereis nigricante
apicatis : rostro virescenti-nigro, apice pallidiore : iride brunnea : pedibus saturate nigricantibus.

Pullus supra pallide rufescenti-arenarius, subtiis saturate rufescens, abdomine et corpore reliquo griseo-albis :
capite supra, dorso et uropygio imo rufescentibus.

Adult (Archangel, 10th of September) . Forehead and sides of the face covered closely with black hair, the
warty red skin showing through towards the hinder part; crown red and warty, scantily covered with
thin hairs ; nape for about the distance of two inches greyish black, below which the hinder part of the
neck is white, this colour extending on each side of the black nape up to the eye ; throat, excepting a
narrow white streak from the base of each mandible, and neck slaty black ; lower part of the neck all
round, underparts generally, back, scapulars, and wing-coverts ashy grey, slightly discoloured with
brown here and there on the back ; primary quills black ; secondaries greatly elongated, forming a
conspicuous ornamental plume covering the hinder parts ; these feathers are grey like the back, but
are either conspicuously tipped with black, or have the outer web of that colour; in texture they
are loose, the radii hanging loosely and being in some partly curled ; tail grey, blackish towards
the tip ; bill greenish brown, much lighter at the base, dull flesh-coloured at the base of the under

2 Q

338

mandible; iris reddish; legs blackish grey. Total length 45 inches, culmen 4 - 7, wing 24, tail 8 - l,
tarsus 9 - 6.

Nestling ("Wermland, Sweden, 30th of May) . Covered with close soft down ; upper parts brownish-sand-
colour; on the head, centre of the back, rump, and edge of the wing-joint rufous brown; underparts
light reddish brown; abdomen dirty white. A much older bird in Baron von Hugel's collection is
similar to that above described, but, if any thing, rather paler.

Obs. In the summer plumage the upper parts have a dull rusty brown tinge ; and there has been considerable
doubt as to how this colour is caused, whether by the ferruginous water of the marshes or a natural
colouring of the feathers. Von Homeyer considers that the bird plasters its back with earth, so that
when sitting it may not be so easily discerned, and states that he has himself seen the bird put the
earth on its back ; but Gloger doubts this being the case. Meves analyzed this colouring-matter, and
found it to contain ferruginous matter, and is therefore inclined to side with Mr. von Homeyer as to
the cause of this discoloration.

The Crane inhabits during the summer season the northern portions of Europe and Asia,
migrating southward when the autumn sets in ; it has, however, been met with breeding as far
south in Europe as Spain. In Great Britain it is now scarcely ever seen, though formerly it
was, according to Ray and Willughby, resident in this country. Mr. A. G. More writes that
" the Crane is spoken of by Turner (Avium Historia, 1543) as breeding in this country. This
author says, ' earum pipiones ipse ssepissime vidi;' and an Act of Parliament, passed in 1553,
made the taking of a Crane's egg an offence punishable with a fine of twenty pence. But the
bird could not have long continued the practice of breeding with us ; for to Sir Thomas Browne
and John Bay it was only known as a winter visitant. As in several other cases the bird's name
remains, and in many parts of the country the Heron is commonly known as the ' Crane.' " " In
Scotland," Mr. Robert Gray writes, " it is very rare, and has only been met with in two instances
in any of the western counties. A young bird, which I have seen and examined, was shot on
Dundonnell estate, near the head of Loch Broom, West Ross-shire, in September 1869. Another
was seen in March 1870 at Torridon, in the same county, by a keeper, who shot at the bird, but
it made its escape. I obtained these particulars in the neighbourhood personally, about a month
afterwards. It has, perhaps, occurred more frequently in Orkney and Shetland than elsewhere
in Britain. The years 1807, 1832, and 1833 may be mentioned in connexion with its appearance.
In Mr. Dunn's copy of Baikie and Heddle's work a note in MS. by one of the authors states that a
specimen was killed in Shetland in 1848. I examined a very fine bird of this species, which was
shot near Hawick, in May 1863 : the specimen is still in the possession of Mr. Forrest, gunmaker,
Jedburgh. Dr. Saxby mentions that two were shot in Shetland in 1865 — one in July by himself,
the other at Haroldswick a few weeks previously, — and also that he obtained a male in the island
of Unst, in the end of May 1869, where a pair had been seen on the 11th of the same month.
One, an immature specimen, was killed on the banks of the Dee, in Aberdeenshire, in the end
of May 1851, by Mr. Francis Anderson, and is still in that gentleman's possession. This bird,
as I have been informed by Mr. Angus, frequented a field contiguous to the river for several days.
It was wounded in the evening about dusk, and in the darkness escaped by flying into a neigh-
bouring wood. It was, however, shot dead next morning while roosting in a tree. The specimen

339

was preserved by Mr. Mitchell, and shown by him to the late Professor Macgillivray shortly
before his death : it was the only example of the species ever seen in the flesh by that excellent
ornithologist, and is now invested with a somewhat melancholy interest, as being the very last
bird he examined. An old Scots Act, passed in 1551, provides that the price of a Crane shall
not exceed five shillings, thus ranking it with the Swan in value. No act of the present day
would prevent collectors giving at least ten times that amount for a British-killed specimen."

In Ireland it is, according to Thompson, " an extremely rare visitant." In Smith's ' History
of the County of Waterford,' published in the year 1745, the following passage appears : — " The
Crane (Grus), which is a bird of passage. During the great frost of 1739 some few Cranes
were seen in this country, but not since or before in any person's memory." The same author
in his ' History of the County of Cork,' published in 1749, remarks that " the Crane was seen
in this county during the remarkable frost in 1739 ; but they do not breed with us." In
March 1834 Mr. Glennon, bird-preserver, informed me that a Crane, then in the Museum of
the Eoyal Dublin Society, and seen by him in a fresh state, was shot in the county of Galway
about twenty-five years previously. By letter from Richard Chute, Esq., written in 1846, I was
assured that " a Crane was shot in Tralee Bay, about twenty years ago, by the Eev. John Chute,
now rector of Roscommon." My correspondent, though but young at the time, saw the bird ; he
states, on the additional authority of the shooters and others, that it was unquestionably the
" Crane." Mr. Harting also makes the following reference : — " In a ' Notice of animals which
have disappeared from Ireland during the period of authentic history,' the author, Dr. Scouler,
remarks, ' the Crane ( Grus cinerea) was formerly so plentiful that, according to Giraldus, flocks
consisting of a hundred individuals were extremely common.' The words of Giraldus are, ' in
tanta vero numerositate se grues ingerunt, ut uno in grege centum et circiter numerum frequenter
invenies.' "

I may here mention that Mr. Cecil Smith informs me that " in Somerset of late years only
one specimen has occurred, and that a young bird of the year, which was shot by Mr. Haddon,
of Taunton, at Stotford, near Burnham, on the Bristol Channel, on the 17th of October, 1865.
This seems to have been rather a great year for British Cranes."

It has been once obtained on the Faeroes, over which it occasionally passes during migration.
In Scandinavia are its head quarters during the summer season; and as regards its range in
Norway my friend Mr. Robert Collett informs me that " its chief habitat is in the large mosses
in the conifer-woods in the interior of the southern portions of the country. In these localities
it is common, and especially so in the mosses fringing Lake Mjosen, on Hedemarken, Osterdalen,
and in the southern portion of the Gudbrandsdale. Stray individuals are often met with north
of the Dovre ; but so far as I can ascertain, it has not been met with breeding in Nordland and
Finmark ; but it has been killed in the immediate proximity of the North Cape, and of late years it
has occurred several times on the Varanger fiord, and near the Russian frontier. It migrates to
and from Norway over the west coast of Sweden, and is therefore rare in western Norway. Flocks
of from ten to twenty individuals are almost annually seen near the Christiania fiord." To the
above I may add that Pastor Sommerfelt writes that it has occurred in the autumn in the Varanger
fiord, and has once been shot at Utsjok. In Sweden it arrives in March and April, spreads over
the wild morasses, chiefly those in the far north, where it breeds, and leaves again in August and

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September. The peasantry in Skane have an old proverb to the effect that the Crane arrives
always on the third Thursday in "Thor's" month (March), which runs as follows: — " Tredje
Thorsdagen i Thor, satter Tranan sin fot pa Sveriges jor " (on the third Thursday in Thor the
Crane sets his foot on Swedish soil). This (calculated after the old style) would, Nilsson says,
make the date of its arrival early in April, which is about the true time of its arrival. Nilsson
states that it breeds even in the south of Sweden, in the marshes of Smaland, and in Skane on
the borders of Blekinge. Regarding its .breeding in Lapland the excellent notes published by
the late Mr. Wolley are given below. In Finland it is by no means uncommon in the far north ;
and I met with it near Uleaborg, Kemi, and Tornea, and obtained the eggs at Ija, where a few
pairs always breed. When travelling northwards early in April large flocks were seen migrating
in that direction, their clear loud trumpet-like note being heard before the birds themselves were
seen. A. von Nordmann states that a considerable number breed on the large morasses in
Nurmis, northern Karelen ; and Professor Malmgren writes to me that it breeds all over the
country, excepting the south-western portions, from lat. 60-g° to lat. 68J°.

It is common in Northern Russia ; and Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that in Central Russia the
Crane is found wherever there are large wooded swamps, and consequently it is more numerous
in the Governments of Twer, Jaroslaf, and Wladimir than in any of the southern Governments.
In the south-eastern Governments it is met with more often; but in the southern and south-
western portions it is migratory. In the north it is, again, rare, although it was found as far as
North Karelen and Archangel, and in the Northern Ural nearly as high as 68° north lat. But
the Crane seldom builds in the Bogoslofsky Ural, notwithstanding the numerous suitable
localities. In Central Russia it generally breeds in the densely wooded swamps, on hillocks,
beyond the Ural Mountains in large swamps overgrown with wood and bushes, and there builds
a very large nest, constructed chiefly of reeds. After the breeding-season is over they seldom
remain in the swamps, but go there for the night, during the day-time frequenting meadows and
ploughed fields. It is especially destructive to oats and peas. In the spring it picks up and eats
the corn that is sown. The spring migration generally lasts a shorter time than that in the autumn.
In South-western Russia the migration commences about the middle of March, and ends about the
10th of April; the autumn migration lasts from the middle of August very nearly to the middle
of October. In Central Russia and in the Government of Perm the first Cranes do not appear
before the 20th of March, generally in the first days of April, and the migration lasts till the
middle or even to the 20th of April. The departure commences from the 20th of August (in
1869 the 8th of August), and sometimes lasts till the beginning of October; but generally it is
over by the last days of September. In the middle of April they are sitting ; and I found their
eggs about the 20th of May. In the beginning of July the young are able to fly, and assemble in
flocks. Mr. Taczanowski informs me that " the Crane is common enough in Poland, and breeds
there in large or less numbers. Besides, I have on several occasions observed bands which during
the breeding-season were scattered over the wild marshes in the Government of Lublin and
in Volhynia, and which by their actions appeared to be young birds, which do not breed
in their second year. According to Professor Kessler the Crane is just as common in the
districts of Kieff. It is also very common in Eastern Siberia, and does not differ in any way
from the European bird." Meyer records it as common in Livonia, arriving in April and leaving

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in September; and Borggreve gives it. as a tolerably common summer resident in the large
wooded marshes in the eastern portion of North Germany, and a regular migrant throughout
the entire country. It seldom frequents the bare open marshes, and probably seldom, if ever,
breeds in the western portion of the empire. He later on, however, states that it breeds still
regularly in Dromling, on the boundary of the Weser and Elb territory; and Mr. A. von
Homeyer writes that about ten pairs breed on the Gorlitzer moors; and, according to Tobias,
more breed near Priemkenan. Kjserbolling states that, though becoming rare in Denmark, it
still breeds in several parts of the duchies ; but Mr. Benzon writes to me that, " although
formerly the Crane was to be found breeding in Denmark, and must have been common, as
is proved by the names of places such as ' Tranekjser ' &c, I know no instance of its nest having
been found here of late years. It rarely occurs in Denmark, the morasses having been chiefly
drained off, so that it finds no congenial place of habitation with us." In regard to its occur-
rence in North-western Germany, Mr. Carl Sachse informs me that " it has not been known
to breed in the Rhine provinces, but passes regularly. In 1863 they passed between the
29th of March and 2nd of April, in 1864 on the 3rd of April, in 1865 on the 5th of April,
in 1866 from the 14th to the 18th of March, in 1867 on the 20th of March, in 1868 from
the 15th to the 25th of March, and in 1871 between the 20th and 30th of March. On their
return they usually pass from the middle to the end of October. In 1854 much snow still
remained on the ground in March, but still several flocks of Cranes arrived, and remained
until the snow melted. They seemed to have quite laid aside their usual caution, and could
be approached to within twenty paces, and even in the open to within from thirty to fifty
paces, so that about fifty were shot down in a few hours. Excepting that year, I have never
seen a Crane settle down on the ground here since 1840. It seems as if they knew by
instinct that they would meet severer weather further to the north, and therefore remained
here and picked up what food they could get under the snow." In Belgium, Holland, and
France it is met with during the seasons of migration, but does not appear to remain for any
time in any of those countries. Professor Barboza du Bocage records it as found occasionally
in the wilder portions of Alemtejo and Algarve ; and Lord Lilford informs me that it is very
common in Southeim Spain during the winter, a few pairs remain to breed in the Marisma of the
Guadalquivir, and there is a colony not far from Casa Vieja, from which Major Irby obtained
several eggs. Major Irby himself writes to me that " the Crane is abundant on both sides of
the Straits of Gibraltar from October to March. None appear to remain to nest in Morocco.
In the marshes of the Guadalquivir some few pairs remain during the nesting-season. I found
one nest, but no eggs, nor have I seen any from those pai'ts. In the swamps of the Laguna de
Janda and between Vejer and Casa Vieja in some years as many as forty pairs remain to breed.
They do not nest near one another, or in any thing like a colony, being scattered over an extent
of some thousands of acres. They begin to lay about the first week in May, the complement
of eggs is never more than two." In Malta, Mr. C. A. Wright informs me, " a few are seen
annually in spring and autumn, and occasionally in the winter months. One was killed on the
13th of December, 1860, and another in March 1861 ;" and it is a regular visitant to Italy, both
in the spring and autumn, and is even said to breed in the neighbourhood of Venice. Dr. Henry
Giglioli says that " a few Cranes repass Pisa in March ; and it is a fine sight to see them flying

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high in the air, forming a compact phalanx of the shape of an inverted Y (^) ; they generally
hetray their presence by loud and discordant screams. With Savi, 1 believe it not unlikely that a
few pass the winter in the Tuscan Maremma and Pontine marshes." In the Ionian Islands, Lord
Lilford writes, it is " often to be heard and seen, passing over Corfu at a great elevation in the
months of March and October. The only spot in these parts in which I have seen this species on
the ground was on the Greek frontier, opposite Prevesa, where I fell in with a troop of several
hundreds in March 1857. I saw a freshly killed specimen in a ditch near Corfu on the 2nd of
April 1857." Lindermayer also states that "during the equinoctial gales a few appear in
Greece, remain on the mainland a short time to rest, and then migrate northwards." It has
not been found breeding there ; and Lindermayer states that he has never observed it in the
autumn. In Austria the Eitter von Tschusi Schmidhofen records it as rare during passage :
and Dr. O. Finsch states that it breeds on the islands in the Danube ; but I never heard of its
breeding there. Messrs. Elwes and Buckley " found the Crane tolerably numerous in some
of the marshes in Turkey, and were told they breed in Macedonia, which seems very likely, as
the ground was of almost exactly the same nature as the places where they breed in Lapland,
and the Crane has been found breeding in Spain quite as far south as this. We found Crane-
steak capital eating when well cooked, though not quite so ' gamy ' as Bustard, which is a first-
rate bird for the table." It is met with in Southern Russian during passage ; and Mr. Goebel
writes that it passes through Uman late in March and early in April, and again late in August
and early in September ; and he further states that it breeds on the Krasnostaw and Sokolowschen
marshes. According to Von Nordmann many breed in Podolia, Volhynia, and Bessarabia, but in
the Government of New Russia proper it is replaced by G. virgo. In Asia Minor the Crane
passes in March, and again in October and November. Mr. von Gonzenbach, who gives a long
list of the dates when they pass near Smyrna, further states that they do not all pass on to
Africa, as he has seen two which were shot near Volo early in January 1861. Dr. Tristram
met with it in Palestine, where, he states, " it was the only species of Crane we observed, and
that only in winter. At Moladah, about thirty miles west of the south end of the Dead Sea, we
chanced to camp close to a roosting-place of Cranes. Hard work and, I hope, a good conscience
made us sound sleepers; else the din of the Cranes might have aroused an Ephesian. Towards
sunset these enormous birds began to return homewards, flying in order, like Geese, with out-
stretched necks, keeping up a ceaseless trumpeting ; but, unlike Rooks, they were not all- early
to bed, for fresh arrivals seemed to pour in for several hours, and the trumpeting continued till
morning, with only an occasional lull. The howl of some wandering Jackal would rouse the
whole camp ; then, after a slight pause, the wail of an Hyaena evoked a deafening chorus ; and
before daylight began an angry discussion, perhaps on the next day's journey. Parties of some
hundreds departed for the south with the dawn ; others remained, probably to make up for their
broken slumbers, till the sun had risen for a couple of hours. The roosting-place was a group
of hillocks covering several acres, and was covered with the mutings of the birds as thickly as
the resort of any sea-fowl. It has evidently been occupied for years, 1 have no reason to think
that the Crane ever breeds in Palestine." Mr. C. W. Wyatt, when on the Sinai Expedition,
saw single birds on the marshes near Tor in February ; and Captain Shelley writes that it is a
" common winter visitant both in Egypt and Nubia, arriving in October and leaving again in

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March. During their stay they may frequently be met with in flocks on the sand-banks and
desert spaces by the river, or in the wide plains of halfa-grass." In North-western Africa it is
partly a migrant and partly a winter resident. Mr. Taczanowski states that numbers winter in
Algeria, and in the El Outaja valley he saw numbers which passed every evening northwards,
and in the mornings southwards ; it is met with in pairs in the desert. Canon Tristram records
it as " on passage in spring and autumn, sometimes halting for a time in the salt marshes."
Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake includes it in his list of the birds of Tangier and Eastern Morocco. Lord
Lilford informs me that he met with it commonly near Tunis in November ; and Mr. Osbert
Salvin writes that it " is found in Tunis in great numbers during the winter months, frequenting
the large plains. On one occasion, between Tunis and Oudeno, I counted 108 of these birds on
the wing at once. They are said to be migratory ; and probably they seek their breeding-haunts
in the continent of Europe."

To the eastward the Crane has an extensive range. Pallas gives its eastern range as " all
Siberia to the Lena, Kolyma and Anadyr rivers, and during migration observed even in Nishne
Kamtschatks and Olutora, in Kamschatka, though rare so far north." Von Schrenck did not
obtain a specimen on the Amoor, but observed it during migration. In the spring of 1855
Mr. Maximowicz observed the first Cranes at the Mariinskischen Post on the 7 th (19th) of April.
Dr. Eadde brought home four specimens from Siberia, all of which agreed with the common
European Crane in measurements and plumage. He writes that the first were observed by him
at Tarei-nor on the 23rd of April, where they were not numerous. On the 24th of August,
1859, he observed them passing over the Kamardaban mountains, on their journey southward ;
on the 16th he saw them near Kultuk, on the wing, practising their flight; on the 26th of
August, 1856, they had left the Tarei lake, and on the 30th he saw a large flock passing south-
ward. He observed a flock flying in a south-westerly direction on the 25th in the Bureja
mountains ; but on the 2nd of September others passed in a direct southern direction. It occurs
in Japan, whence it is recorded in the ' Pauna Japonica ' under the name of Grus cinerea
longirostris ; and Mr. Swinhoe, who met with it in China, records it as occurring " every winter
at Swatow, lower down the coast than at Amoy, in flocks of a hundred or so ; they live during
their stay chiefly on sweet potatoes (the tubers of Batatas edulis)" He also writes that it
" occurs in small parties every winter on the sand flats of Swatow. In Naochow and Hainan
they were very abundant, and we often had opportunities of watching them. They are prized as
food by the natives ; and the soldiers shoot at them, which renders them wild and difficult of
approach. They feed largely here on the sweet potatoes. It was only on the plains and open
parts of the country that we saw them. They did not occur south of the mountains. The last
flight we noticed was on the 23rd of March, at Hoitow (W. Hainan). The magistrate at
Lingmun informed me that ' Cranes are born in pairs and mate for life. If one is born singly
he remains a bachelor all his days, and becomes a sentinel to the flock. This is a hard duty to
perform ; for if the sentinel gives a false alarm he is beaten, and if he does not give the alarm
soon enough he is also beaten.' The Chinese ' Gazetteer ' remarks on the abundance of Cranes
in Hainan, and their scarcity in other parts of the Canton province." According to Jerdon it
" visits India in numerous flocks during the cold weather. In the Deccan and Central India it is
generally seen in small flocks of from six or eight to twenty, now and then in much larger

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numbers, especially in the Punjab and North-west Provinces." Major Irby writes that "large
flocks appear during the cold season, and are chiefly found near the rivers Choka and Kurnalli,
feeding on the rice-stubbles. This and Anthropoides virgo are much prized by European sports-
men under the name of ' Courlan.' " And Dr. Leith Adams records it as " very abundant during
the cold months on the rivers of the Punjab. They migrate evidently from the west, and return
again before the commencement of the hot weather. The numbers that frequent the banks of
the Jhelum below the city of that name and the confluence with the Chenab, are almost beyond
conception ; they commit grave havoc in the wheatfields. They are shy and difficult of approach."
In America this species of Crane does not occur, being there replaced by two allied species —
Grus canadensis and Grits fraterculus.

The Crane is one of the most wary and watchful birds ; and I have spent hours in trying to
stalk tbem without success. There is an old saying amongst the peasantry of the high north,
that the Crane when standing on sentry, as one of a flock generally does, stands on one leg and
in the other holds a stone, so that, in case it should nap off, the falling stone would immediately
awaken it. The crest of the Cranstouns is, as stated by Sir Walter Scott in the ' Lay of the
Last Minstrel,' a Crane standing in this position, and may have reference to the above-referred-
to tale ; and if so it clearly typifies the extreme watchfulness so necessary to the Borderer in
the old troublous times, when on the Border every man had to be prepared for warfare at
any moment. When on migration they fly in flocks, arranged in lines or triangles ; and it is
astonishing at how great a distance their clear loud cry can be heard. They often travel by
night, especially when migrating northward ; and when in Finland and Scandinavia I have when
awake often heard them passing overhead in the middle of the night. They generally, it seems,
fly at a considerable altitude, and in a very steady, sedate manner, from time to time uttering
their loud trumpet-like cry. When taken young they become very tame ; and I have on several
occasions, in the villages in Finland, seen tame Cranes, which appeared to belong to no one in
particular, but visited any hut where they were well treated. Dr. Sundstrom sends me an
extract from the Swedish sporting magazine, ' Svenska Jagareforbundets gamla Tidskrift,' pub-
lished in 1833, which translated reads as follows: — "Some years ago two young Cranes, a male
and a female, were caught on the large moor near the celebrated springs of Porla, in Nerike,
where the Crane annually breeds. They were taken to the farmhouse at Wissbo to be brought
up, and were at first quite a nuisance, as they kept up a continual piping sound ; but as they
grew up they left off this bad habit. The male was killed by a kick from a bull he attacked ;
but the female grew up with the chickens and ducks as companions, and kept these latter in good
order, especially at meal-times ; for if they came too close and interfered with her, she would put
her beak and head under them and throw them high up into the air. She would wait at the
kitchen-door at meal-times for the boys who came out with a piece of bread and butter in their
hands, and, catching at their bright buttons, would often get them to drop the bread and butter,
which she immediately snatched up, and would swallow in such large pieces that they could often
be seen working down her throat. She often tried to get into the kitchen and rooms, but was
always turned out, her habits not being exactly as cleanly as they might be under the circum-
stances. Dogs she soon put to flight ; and the cats were wise enough to give her a very wide berth.
She would frighten children and mischievous boys by raising herself to her full height, stepping

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backwards and gaping with her bill. She was fond of the herdsman's lad, who in the evenings
would play with her, throwing up his cap into the air and performing a sort of war-dance, which
she would imitate, to the great delectation of the spectators. Between her and the gardener
there was a standing feud, as she would root up the flower-bulbs, which she pulled in pieces and
threw away, but was careful to be out of the way when the gardener came. When any one else
was digging in the garden she would watch so closely for the worms and certain roots that one
would suppose her head to be in danger of being injured by the spade. She was fond of potatoes,
but would sometimes strike a large one and get it fast on her beak, and be unable to get it off.
She would then go round to every one for assistance until some one would take it off. Though
her wings had been clipped, she could fly a little, and paid visits to the labourers in the fields.
Her sense of hearing was very acute ; and she knew perfectly well how to distinguish the house-
keeper's voice when he called the chickens or uttered her name, Trana, Trana, when she would
hurry up, partly running and partly flying. On the following year, when she could fly well, she
always dropped down out of the air when the well-known call was heard, but on reaching the
ground could never stand before taking twenty to thirty steps with uplifted wings. She was fond
of small fishes, but did not care to take them if offered tail foremost ; but offered head first, so
that the fins did not trouble her, a dozen did not seem to come amiss. Curiously enough she
was fond of meat, but generally would take a piece to the neighbouring shore and wash it in the
water, and then before swallowing it would work it about for some time in the sand. When
about three years old, and accustomed to fly miles away, remaining absent all day, she was
missing, and probably fell a victim to some gunner, who either made a meal of her or used her
long legs for pipe-stems. A tame Crane died at Hofva vicarage, in Westergothland, where it
had lived for fifteen years. It was taken quite young, when not fully feathered, and used to be
fed in the kitchen, where it became a prime favourite. It was a male, and perhaps therefore
took more kindly to ladies' society, never caring to remain where the men were, especially if
several were present. It soon became greatly attached to the lady of the house, and whenever
she came outside the house would greet her with cries, distinguishing her voice (even her sneeze)
when she spoke in the room and it could hear her. It would take good care to help itself
when the chickens were fed ; and if they would not give place, it would pick one of them up,
carry it to the pond, and give it a good ducking. It had a decided taste for dancing, but would
not dance for every one, but when so inclined would cut most ludicrous capers, and imitate
figures when encouraged to do so, retiring and advancing in turn. The organs of sight and
hearing were especially developed. When the piano was played it would first listen outside and
then march solemnly into the room, even if strangers were present, and take up its position
beside the piano, where it would remain as long as the music lasted. It knew perfectly well
when an adagio was played, and would droop and move its head about, looking quite melancholy,
but as soon as a lively polka or quadrille was struck up would rise upright and, moving its head
quickly, would give every sign of pleasure. It was fond of a looking-glass, and if allowed to
stand before a large mirror would bow and scrape most comically. It often called to wild Cranes ;
but having its wings clipped, it could not join them. Once it induced one to come to it, and
promenaded about with it in the field all day long, but was forsaken when it wanted to return to

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the house in the evening. One morning it was found dead in its sleeping-place, without any sign
of having been injured."

The Crane breeds in Sweden, Norway, Finland, Northern Germany, Eussia, Northern Asia,
and in Western Europe, as before stated, in Spain. Mr. Howard Saunders writes : — " I found
it nesting, and have eggs from the marshes of Dohana, and am informed that in some places it
nests almost in colonies. It is partial to acorns, and in the Dehesa de Eemonte it interfered so
much with the fattening of the pigs which are driven in to feed, that war was declared against
the species by the proprietor."

The Crane breeds on the ground, forming a simple nest, in which are deposited usually two
eggs ; but Mr. Meves informs me that he has known instances of three having been found in the
same nest. I know of no better account of its nidification than that published by the late
Mr. Wolley, in the first volume of ' The Ibis ;' and as that book is now becoming so rare, I do
not hesitate to quote this in extenso as follows: — " It was on the 15th June, 1853, that I entered
the marsh which the well-known Pastor Leestadius had told me was the most northern limit
in Lapland of the breeding of the Crane. It is in Swedish territory, being on the west side of
the frontier river, opposite the Finnish (Eussian) village of Yli Muonioniska, in about lat. 68° —
that is, some distance within the Arctic Circle. This great marsh, called i Iso noma,' is mostly
composed of soft bog, in which, unless where the Bog-bean grows, one generally sinks up to the
knees, or even to the middle ; but it is intersected by long strips of firmer bog-earth, slightly
raised above the general level, and bearing creeping shrubs, principally of sallow and dwarf
birch, mixed in places with Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum, Andromeda polifolia, Bubus
chamcemorus, besides grasses, Varices, mosses, and other plants. There were also a few bushes or
treelets of the common birch, and these quite numerous in some parts of the marsh.

"Walking along one of these strips, in a direction where the pair of Cranes was said to be
often heard, I came upon a nest which I was sure must be a Crane's. I saw one bit of down.
The nest was made of very small twigs mixed with long sedgy grass ; altogether several inches in
depth, and perhaps two feet across. In it were two lining-membranes of eggs ; and on searching
amongst the materials of the nest I found fragments of the shells. We had not gone many yards
beyond this place, when I saw a Crane stalking in a direction across us amongst some small birch
trees, now appearing to stoop a little, and now holding its head and neck boldly up as it steadily
advanced. Presently the lads called out to me that they had found some young Cranes. As I
ran towards them, a Crane, not the one I had previously seen, rose just before me from among
some bushes which were only two or three feet high, and not twenty yards from the place where
the lads had been shouting at least for a minute or two. It rose into the air in a hurried,
frightened way. There was nothing just at the spot where it got up, neither eggs nor young.
I then went up to where the two little Cranes were found. They were standing upright, and
walking about with some facility, and making a rather loud 'cheeping' cry. They seemed as if
they could have left such eggs as Cranes were supposed to lay only a very few days. I say
supposed ; for in England we know nothing of the eggs which are called Cranes', but which may
have come from any part of the world. They were straightly made little things, short in the
beak, livid in the eye, thick in the knees, covered with a moderately long chestnut or tawny-
coloured down, darker on the upper parts, softening away into paler underneath. As I fondled

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one of them it began to peck playfully at my hands and legs ; and when at length I rose to go
away, it walked after me, taking me, as I supposed, for one of its long-legged parents. I had
only just before been plucking from it some bits of down to keep ; for, valuable as I knew it to
be in a natural-history point of view, I could not make up my mind to take its life. As soon as
I saw its inclination to follow, I took to double-quick time, and left it far behind. Its confidence
was the more remarkable, as, all the time we were with it, the old Cranes were flying round near
the ground at some distance from us, their necks and feet fully stretched out as usual, but with
a remarkable sudden casting up of the wings in a direction over the back after each downward
stroke, in place of the ordinary steady movement ; at the same time they were making a peculiar
kind of low clattering or somewhat gurgling noise, of which it is very difficult to give an intelli-
gible description ; and now and then they broke out into a loud trumpeting call not unlike their
grand ordinary notes, which, audible at so great a distance, gladden the ears of the lover of
nature. As we went away I saw one of the Cranes alight where we had left the young. Later
in the day I had a longing wish to have another look at my young friends. I thought of the old
naturalists — who would have called them ' peepers ' I suppose — one of whom wrote of the Crane
in our fens, 'ejus pipiones scepissime vidi.' To see them now-a-days twice in a life, and that not
in England, would be a consolation. But it was not to be so ; we came back to the spot where
we had parted with them, rested for three or four hours round a stone that projected from the
marsh, but we saw and heard nothing more of either old or young Cranes. In a morass with
another name (which it took from a hill that overlooked it), 'Kharto tioma,' but which was only
separated from 'Iso noma' by an interval of a mile or two of birch thicket, there were also
Cranes ; and I found their nest with the egg-shells lying in the water by it, and so many quill-
feathers scattered about, that I almost feared some accident had happened to the sitting bird.

"The following year, 1854, on the 20th of May, I went with Ludwig my servant lad, to
look for the Crane's nest in ' Iso noma.' We saw no birds ; and the spot where the nest had
been the preceding year was not easy to find in so extensive a marsh. So we quartered our
ground, working carefully up one strip of harder bog and down the next. After some hours of
heavy walking I saw the eggs — joyful sight ! — on an adjacent slip in a perfectly open place. The
two eggs lay with their long diameters parallel to one another, and there was just room for a
third egg to be placed between them. The nest, about two feet across, was nearly flat, made
chiefly of light-coloured grass or hay loosely matted together, scarcely more than two inches in
depth, and raised only two or three inches from the general level of the swamp. There were
higher sites close by ; and many of them would have seemed more eligible.

" It was just at the lowest edge of the strip, but so much exposed, that I thought I should
be able to see even the eggs themselves from a spot at a considerable distance, to which I pro-
posed to go. There was a common story amongst the people of the country, that a Crane, if its
nest were disturbed, would carry off its eggs under its wing to another place ; so I purposely
handled one of the eggs, and hung up a bit of birch bark on a birch tree beyond the nest, as a
mark by which to direct my telescope. Then I went with Ludwig to a clump of spruce growing
on some dry sandy land which rose out of the midst of the marsh. Here I made a good
ambuscade of spruce boughs, crept into it, got Ludwig to cover me so that even the Crane's eye
could not distinguish me, and sent him to make a fire to sleep by on the far side of the wood,

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with strict orders on no account to come near my hiding-place. I kept my glass in the direction
of the nest ; but it was long before I saw any thing stir. In the mean time the marsh was by no
means quiet ; Ruffs were holding something between a European ball and an East-Indian nautch.
Several times ' keet-koot, keet-koot,' to use the words by which the Finns express the sound, told
where the Snipes were. A cock Pintail dashed into a bit of water calling loudly for its mate.
The full melancholy wailing of the Black-throated Diver came from the river ; watch-dogs were
barking in the distance ; I heard the subdued hacking of wood and the crackling of Ludwig's
fire. It was already about midnight ; Fieldfares were chasing each other through the wood : one
came pecking about my feet ; and another, settling on the branches that covered my back, almost
made my ears ache with the loudness of its cries. I often heard the waft of known wings ; but
three times there sounded over head the sweeping wave of great wings to which my ears were
unaccustomed. I could scarcely doubt it was the Cranes' ; but 1 dare not turn up my eye : I even
once or twice heard a slight chuckle that must have been from them. At length, as I had my
glass in the direction of the nest, which was three or four hundred yards off, I saw a tall grey
figure emerging from amongst the birch trees, just beyond where I knew the nest must be ; and
there stood the Crane in all the beauty of nature, in the full side light of an Arctic summer
night. She came on with her graceful walk, her head up ; and she raised it a little higher and
turned her beak sideways and upwards as she passed round the tree on whose trunk I had hung
the little roll of bark. I had not anticipated that she would observe so ordinary an object. She
probably saw that her eggs were safe, and then she took a beat of twenty or thirty yards in the
swamp, pecking and apparently feeding. At the end of this beat she stood still for a quarter of
an hour, sometimes pecking and sometimes motionless, but showing no symptoms of suspicion
of my whereabouts, and, indeed, no manifest sign of fear. At length she turned back and passed
her nest a few paces in the opposite direction, but soon came in to it ; she arranged with her
beak the materials of the nest, or the eggs, or both ; she dropped her breast gently forwards ;
and as soon as it touched, she let the rest of her body sink gradually down. And so she sits
with her neck up and her body full in my sight, sometimes preening her feathers, especially of
the neck, sometimes lazily pecking about ; and for a long time she sits with her neck curved like
a Swan's, though principally at its upper part. Now she turns her head backwards, puts her beak
under the wing, apparently just in the middle of the ridge of the back, and so she seems fairly
to go to sleep. While she sits, as generally while she walks, her plumes are compressed and
inconspicuous.

" By this time all birds, excepting perhaps a Fieldfare, are silent. I was now sure the
Crane would not carry off her eggs. After enjoying for a short time longer this sight — and no
epithet is yet in use which expresses the nature of the feelings created by such scenes in the
minds of those who fully enjoy them — I found that the air was freezing. I quietly got up, and
on reaching the fire made myself comfortable. Some four hours later (that is, between four and
five in the morning) we came again to the west side of the hill ; there lay the Crane, head and
neck still visible. We may have whispered too loud ; for she soon raised her head. I now wished
to see how she would leave the nest, whether crouchingly or not. I took a line not directly
towards it, curving more upon it as I advanced, of course taking care to keep my eyes in a different
direction. When I believed that I was just opposite, I looked, as I thought, towards the place,

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which might be about twenty paces off; but I did not at first recognize the bird. She was a few
feet from the exact spot I had expected ; and I unconsciously took her for a grey stone, till my
eye turned directly on her. I had then just time to mark her position with her head drawn in
between her shoulders, when, having caught my glance, she rose steadily into the air. In one
part of the nest was a damp spot from the water of the marsh having soaked through. The
eggs now lay touching each other. When I came to blow them, I found to my surprise that
they were one or two days sat upon. In 1855 this nest, as Ludwig informed me, was robbed by
a Fielfras (Gulo borealis). I had the pleasure of showing it, towards the end of the summer of
the same year, to my friend Mr. Alfred Newton, who thought the difficulties of the bog fully
repaid by the sight even of an empty Crane's nest. We found "on this occasion, on examining
the materials of the nest, old pieces of egg-shell, showing that it was the same nest that had
been used in previous years.

" I must not go into long particulars concerning the nest of 1854 in Kharto noma. I found
the two eggs on the 22nd of May, in a spot only two feet from the nest of the preceding year.
It consisted of not more than a handful or so of whitish sedge grass, about twenty inches across
and two or three inches only above the level of the water of the submerged parts of the marsh,
close to the edge of which it was situated. There was a kind of creeping moss about it, and one
or two very low-lying shoots of sallow.

" It was placed in an open part of the middle of the south-east wing of the marsh. I have
a memorandum that there was not then a leaf unrolled, the only visible signs of summer being a
kind of C'arex coming into flower on the hummocks ; and yet the nights were quite as light as the
day. I kept watch at the distance of nearly half a mile ; but unfortunately the smoke of my fire
blew towards the nest. I saw a Crane go sailing down, and afterwards the pair walking
together, when they indulged in a minuet or some more active dance, skipping into the air
as the Demoiselles sometimes do in the Zoological Gardens. Once or so I saw the beak of one
pointed perpendicularly to the sky ; and a couple of seconds afterwards the loud trumpet struck
my ear. It was two or three o'clock in the morning before a bird came on to the nest ; and even
then she was soon off, but again came back, sitting always with her head up. She left it very
wild when at last we advanced from our bivouac. In this watch I saw and heard many inter-
esting birds, amongst them a Hen-Harrier (Circus cyaneus). Also a pair of Goshawks (Astur
falumbarms) dashed into a tree close over my head, the Crane still visible in the distance.
These eggs were rather smaller than the pair from Iso noma; two other nests which I have
since obtained in Lapland have eggs as big as those which are said to come from Germany, and
vary as they do. I had the pleasure in August 1857 of showing Mr. Frederick Godman and his
brother Percy a nest near Muonio-vaara, from which eggs were taken the same year, and a
young one fledged, from the same marsh at least, if not from the same nest as in 1856. Their
wading to this nest, known to be empty, amidst swarms of greedy gnats, was a satisfactory proof
of zeal.

" The locality was in a perfectly open part of the rather small marsh, which was scarcely
half an English mile across ; so that the bird on its nest must have been most conspicuous from
every side. It was on a little elevation, not more than one stride across, and raised only a few
inches above the water. The eggs on the 5 th of June were a good deal sat upon. The finders

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did not venture to leave them, both for this reason and because a large Hawk was believed to
be watching them. They assured me that the birds did not cry, which agrees with my experience
of their behaviour when I was near the other two nests.

" I went the day after the eggs were taken, to see the place. There was still ice enough
down in the bog to prevent me sinking beyond a certain moderate depth; not so when the
Godmans tried it. The nest, as usual, was of the kind of sedgy grass which grew in the same
marsh, near the nest. Some of the pieces had been pulled up by the roots. It was twenty-seven
inches acro'ss, and three or four inches in thickness, perfectly flat, dripping wet in its lowest
layers. The bir